OUTLINES 

OF   THE 

HISTORY   OF   EDUCATION 


THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 

NEW  YORK  •    BOSTON   •    CHICAGO 
DALLAS  •    SAN   FRANCISCO 

MACMILLAN  &  CO.,  LIMITED 

LONDON  •    BOMBAY  •    CALCUTTA 
MELBOURNE 

THE  MACMILLAN  CO.  OF  CANADA,  LTD. 

TORONTO 


OUTLINES 


OF  THE 


HISTORY  Of  EDUCATION 


BY 


.WILLIAM   B.   ASPINWALL,   Po.M.,  PH.D. 


PROFESSOR  OF  THE  HISTORY  AND  PRINCIPLES  OF  EDUCATION 

NEW  YORK  STATE  NORMAL  COLLEGE 

ALBANY,  N.Y. 


THE    MACMILLAN   COMPANY 

1912 

All  rights  reserved 


COPYRIGHT,  1912, 
BY  THE  MACMILLAN   COMPANY. 


Set  up  and  electrotyped.     Published  March,  1912. 


NorfoooU  \3ttsz 

J.  8.  Cashing  Co.  —  Berwick  <fc  Smith  Co. 
Norwood,  Mass.,  U.S.A. 


TO 
WILLIAM   J.   MILNE,   PH.D.,  LL.D. 

PRESIDENT  OF   THE  NEW   YORK  STATE  NORMAL   COLLEGE 

WHOSE   PERSONAL   INFLUENCE  AND   WISE   COUNSEL 

HAVE  FOR   MANY   YEARS    BEEN  A   SOURCE   OF 

ENCOURAGEMENT   AND   INSPIRATION   TO 

THOUSANDS   OF  STUDENTS   AND 

TEACHERS 

THIS   BOOK   IS  AFFECTIONATELY   DEDICATED 


2051812 


PREFACE 

THIS  little  volume  of  studies  has  been  prepared  as  a  guide 
to  the  study  of  the  History  of  Education  for  students  in  col- 
leges and  normal  schools,  with  the  hope  that  from  out  of  the 
maze  of  facts  and  events  which  surround  and  obscure  the  sub- 
ject, they  may  by  its  aid  gain  a  clearer  understanding  of  the 
development  of  educational  thought  and  practices.  Most 
books  that  deal  with  this  broadest  of  historical  subjects  do  not 
marshal  the  facts  contributing  to  progress  in  education  so 
that  a  definite  tendency  or  purpose  or  result  can  be  discerned. 
As  a  matter  of  value  and  profit,  it  is  not  so  important  to  the 
student  to  know  the  facts  as  it  is  to  know  the  bearing  of  the 
facts  upon  the  movement,  to  understand  their  dependence  upon 
what  has  gone  before  as  well  as  upon  the  actual  conditions 
surrounding  them  and  to  see  their  influence  upon  the  develop- 
ment of  the  movement.  We  all  know  that  any  type  of  edu- 
cational practice  is  but  the  outward  expression  of  the  thoughts 
and  ideals  and  purposes  which  guide  one  generation  in  the 
rearing  of  the  next,  while  these  thoughts,  ideals,  and  purposes 
are,  in  their  turn,  born  of  the  national  life  and  civilization  in 
which  they  have  matured.  Now,  it  is  always  a  difficult  thing 
for  the  student  to  pick  out  the  essential  and  contributing  facts 
and  to  discover  their  meaning,  and  usually,  working  by  himself, 
he  either  fails  to  get  very  much  true  significance  from  them  or 
else  he  gets  it  at  very  great  expense  of  thought  and  effort. 
My  experience  in  teaching  the  History  of  Education  has, 


viii  Preface 

therefore,  proved  to  me,  that  by  providing  the  student  with 
outlines  of  the  important  and  significant  facts  and  movements 
of  thought,  free  from  the  mass  of  exposition  and  narration  and 
description  that  usually  accompanies  them,  so  that  he  may 
approach  his  reading  with  a  definite  notion  of  what  he  is  to 
learn  from  it,  he  inevitably  gains  a  better  understanding  of 
what  he  reads,  has  a  genuine,  intelligent  interest  in  it,  and  does 
not  find  it  necessary  to  spend  so  much  time  and  strength  on  it 
without  results. 

This  method  of  procedure  is,  furthermore,  especially  con- 
ducive to  the  chief  end  desired  in  the  study  of  the  History  of 
Education.  For  the  educational  value  of  the  study  of  this 
subject  is  unquestionably  cultural  rather  than  disciplinary. 
Instead  of  seeking  to  promote  mental  training,  we  are  endeavor- 
ing to  interpret  the  subject,  in  order  that  in  the  light  of  past 
experience  we  may  the  better  understand  the  educational 
practices  and  ideals  of  the  present.  And  everything  that  can 
be  done  to  secure  this  result,  whether  it  be  done  by  topical 
references  for  reading,  by  outlines,  by  charts,  by  tabulations, 
or  by  suggestive  questions,  is,  in  my  judgment,  a  worthy  effort. 

Since,  then,  these  studies  have  accomplished  this  end  for 
my  own  students,  and  they  have  done  so  most  convincingly,  I 
feel  sure  that  they  will  prove  helpful  to  students  generally. 
If  they  serve  to  make  more  intelligible  the  course  of  educational 
development  and  thus  to  make  better  informed  those  who  use 
them,  I  shall  be  well  repaid  for  the  efforts  put  into  their 
preparation.  The  well-qualified  teacher  will  not  use  them  as  a 
textbook,  but  will  require  much  additional  reading  from  the 
references  given,  by  which  to  bring  out  the  events  and  condi- 
tions surrounding  the  educational  work.  But  it  is  fair  to  say 
that  if  at  the  end  of  the  course  the  student  has  a  clear  grasp  of 
these  studies  alone  as  they  outline  the  subject,  he  ought  by 


Preface  ix 

that  accomplishment  to  satisfy  the  demands  of  any  teacher 
who  has  the  student's  welfare  at  heart. 

I  send  them  forth,  therefore,  with  the  sole  wish  to  assist  the 
student  by  contributing  to  his  intelligent  interpretation  and 
enjoyment  of  a  subject  which,  by  its  many  intimate  and  intri- 
cate relationships  with  life  in  all  its  varied  phases,  is  so  often 
difficult  to  understand,  but  which  is  for  the  same  reason  always 

full  of  intense  interest. 

W.  B.  A. 

ALBANY,  N.Y., 

February  i,  1912. 


CONTENTS 

PACK 

PREFACE vii 

INTRODUCTION 

EDUCATION  IN  ANTIQUITY 

Egyptian  Education   ......... 

Chinese  Education 

Hindu  Education 

Hebrew  Education 

Persian  Education 

EDUCATION  IN  GREECE  AND  ROME         .                 .        .        .  13 

Greek  Education 13 

National  Conditions  that  influenced  Education    ...  13 

Homeric  Period  of  Education 14 

Historic  Greek  Education 15 

Spartan  Education 15 

Athenian  Education 17 

New  Greek  Education  :  at  Athens 19 

Educational  Writers  and  Theorists 21 

Pythagoras 21 

Socrates 22 

Xenophon 25 

Plato 26 

Aristotle 30 

Other  Writers 32 

Later  Greek  Education  in  the  Imperial  Period  33 

Roman  Education -35 

National  Characteristics  and  Ideals 35 

Early  Roman  Education      .......  36 

Roman  Education  under  Greek  Influence    ....  37 

Roman  Educational  Theorists 39 

Cicero 39 


xii  Contents 


Seneca 40 

Quintilian 40 

Decline  of  Roman  Education 42 

EDUCATION  DURING  THE  MIDDLE  AGES 44 

Early  Christian  Education 44 

Monasticism  and  Education 47 

Charlemagne  and  the  Education  of  the  Palatine  School      .         .  51 

Educational  Work  of  King  Alfred  of  England    ....  53 

Chivalry  and  the  Education  of  the  Knight          ....  54 

Scholasticism  and  Education 56 

Guild  and  Burgher  Schools        .         ...        .        .        -59 

Saracen  Schools  and  Learning 60 

The  Rise  of  the  Universities 62 

EDUCATION  DURING  THE  PERIOD  OF  THE  RENAISSANCE        .        .  65 

Introduction  :  the  General  Intellectual  Renaissance    ...  65 

The  Revival  of  Letters  or  the  Educational  Renaissance       .         .  67 

In  Italy 67 

In  Northern  Europe 68 

The  Narrow  Humanistic  Education 69 

Representative  Humanistic  Educators         .....  69 

In  Italy  :  Dante,  Petrarch,  Boccaccio,  Barzizza,  Chrysoloras, 

da  Feltre          ..........  69 

In   Holland  and   Germany :    Wessel,   Agricola,   Reuchlin, 

Hegius,  Wimfeling,  Erasmus,  Sturm         .         .         .  71 

In  England :   Colet,  Ascham 75 

The  Reformation  and  Education 76 

Representative  Educators  of  the  Reformation  Period  ...  78 

Luther 78 

Melancthon .         .80 

Zwingli 82 

Calvin .82 

Trotzendorf .83 

Neander 83 

The  Education  of  the  Jesuits      .......  83 

The  Education  of  the  Oratorians 89 

The  Education  of  the  Jansenists  or  Port-Royalists      ...  89 

The  Christian  Brothers'  Schools         .         .         .         .  92 


Contents  xiii 


MODERN  EDUCATION 94 

Realistic  Education 94 

First   or   Transition    Period    of    Realism    (Humanistic  or 

Verbal  Realism) 94 

Representative  Educators  of  the  Transition  Period      .         .       97 

Rabelais 97 

Milton 98 

Montaigne 100 

Mulcaster 102 

Bacon 103 

Innovators  of  the  Sixteenth  and  Seventeenth  Centuries  (Sense 

Realism) 105 

Introduction 105 

Ratich 106 

Comenius      .........     108 

Locke  (Education,  a  Discipline)  .         .         .         .         .112 

Early  Eighteenth  Century  Educators 115 

Francke 116 

Fe'nelon 118 

Rollin          . 119 

Education  according  to  Nature 121 

Rousseau  and  Individualism 121 

Basedow  and  the  Philanthropinum 126 

Education  based  on  Psychology 128 

Pestalozzi  and  the  Beginnings  of  Method  in  Education        .     128 
Herbart  and  the  Science  of  Education         .        .         .        .132 

Froebel  and  the  Kindergarten 135 

The  Place  of  Science  in  Education  :  Spencer      .        .         .         .     139 
Educational  Theory  of  the  Twentieth  Century    ....     142 

Sociological  Conception 142 

Industrial  Education 144 

The  Development  of  Public  Elementary  Education    .         .         .     147 

Germany 148,  151 

France 149,  150,  151 

England 150,  152 

United  States 149,  153 

The  Development  of  Secondary  Education          .         .         .         .156 

Germany 157,  158,  160 

France 157,  159 


xiv  Contents 

PAGE 

England 157,  161 

United  States 159,  162 

The  Development  of  Professional  Training  of  Teachers  .  .  164 

Germany 165,  166 

France 167 

England 168 

United  States 169 

Modern  School  Systems -171 

Germany .  172 

France 174 

England 177 

United  States 178 

History  of  Education  in  the  State  of  New  York  .         .         .         .180 

INDEX 191 


INTRODUCTION 

THIS  book  attempts  to  place  in  small  compass  the  long 
and  involved  story  of  the  evolution  of  those  different  philoso- 
phies of  education  which  have  been  substantial  enough  to 
endure ;  and  is  probably  as  successful  as  such  an  effort  can 
hope  to  be.  Few  teachers  can  find  the  time,  even  though 
they  can  find  the  books  and  have  the  necessary  application, 
to  cover  this  vast  field.  Few  have  the  books  at  hand  and 
certainly  very  few  have  the  mental  training  and  discipline 
to  assimilate  the  writings  of  the  educational  philosophers 
of  the  world.  Yet  they  want  to  know  the  distinguishing 
contentions  of  the  men  and  women  who  have  thought  deeply 
upon  the  things  that  deserve  most  to  be  used  and  the  methods 
that  are  most  effectual  in  drawing  out  and  energizing  the 
human  mind ;  or  at  least  they  want  to  know  where  they  may 
find  the  particular  plans  and  methods  for  which  the  great 
names  in  education  stand.  This  want  seems  to  be  very  well 
met  here.  The  work  has  clearly  been  prodigious.  It  has 
resulted  in  something  more  than  a  catalogue  or  a  bibliography. 
There  has  been  manifestly  an  attempt  to  clear  out  under- 
brush so  that  wanderers  or  travelers  with  a  purpose  may 
explore  the  woods  and  hope  to  get  out  again  in  the  course 
of  a  human  life.  This  will  of  course  provide  loopholes  for 
criticism.  Some  may  say  that  not  enough  underbrush  was 
cut  out,  and  others  that  too  much  was  cleared  up,  and  still 
others  that  some  interpretations  were  mistaken  and  some 
connections  erroneous.  It  matters  little.  The  book  was 
manifestly  not  prepared  for  the  very  great,  of  whom  there 

XV 


xvi  Introduction 

are  few ;  but  for  ordinary  workers  in  the  schools,  of  whom 
there  are  many.  It  will  be  of  service  to  them,  and  that  will 
undoubtedly  satisfy  the  ambition  of  the  author. 

Incidentally  one  can  hardly  examine  this  book  without 
being  impressed  more  deeply  than  ever  with  the  reflection 
that  the  deep  thinking  and  the  substantial  knowledge  of  the 
world  is  old.  There  is  not  much  that  is  new.  But  it  was 
much  confined  and  circumscribed.  Now  it  is  being  let  loose 
and  widely  diffused.  It  is  being  made  available  to  ordinary 
people.  This  book  grows  out  of  the  spirit  of  our  generation. 
Dr.  Aspinwall  is  to  be  commended  for  having  been  moved 
by  that  spirit,  for  having  seen  the  opportunity  to  render 
a  service  to  the  guild  of  teachers,  and  for  having  performed 
that  service  with  so  much  labor  and  discrimination. 

A.   S.  DRAPER. 

NEW  YORK  STATE  EDUCATION  DEPARTMENT, 
February  6,  1912. 


OUTLINES 

OF   THE 

HISTORY   OF   EDUCATION 


OUTLINES  OF  THE  HISTORY 
OF  EDUCATION 

EDUCATION  IN  ANTIQUITY 
ANCIENT  EGYPTIAN  EDUCATION  (c.  4400  B.C.  TO  332  B.C.) 

(Davidson :  Hist.  Educ.,  37-41 ;  Graves :  Hist.  Educ.,  22-42  ; 
Kemp:  Hist.  Educ.,  39-44 ;  Laurie:  Pre-Chr.  Educ.,  11-45; 
Painter:  Hist.  Educ.,  ist  ed.,  32-36,  2d  ed.,  33-38;  Seeley: 
Hist.  Educ.,  46-51;  Williams:  Hist.  Anc.  Educ.,  57-72.) 

National  Characteristics 

1.  Classes  of  society  fixed. 

a.  Priests. 

b.  Soldiers. 

c.  Producers. 

2.  Bureaucratic  government  under  priestly  control. 

3.  Morality  formal  and  dogmatic. 

4.  Civilization  well  advanced. 

a.  Irrigation,  resulting  in  great  fertility  of  soil. 

b.  Engineering,  regulating  the  Nile  overflow. 

c.  Fine  arts  developed  to  high  degree  of  excellence. 

5.  People  conservative  and  homogeneous,  due  to  little  inter- 

national communication. 

6.  Religion. 

a.  Worship  of  the  Nile  and  the  sun. 

b.  Belief  in  a  future  life. 

c.  Prudential  ethics. 

7.  Women  kindly  treated  but  subordinate. 


2  Outlines  of  the  History  of  Education 

Evidences  of  Intellectual  Training 

1.  Pyramids,  architecture,  engineering,  and  mechanics. 

2.  Sculpture,  painting,  decoration. 

3.  Jewelry,  glass,  spinning,  weaving. 

4.  Literature,  music,  hieroglyphic  writing. 

Character  of  Education 

1.  Priestly. 

2.  Practical  and  professional. 

Organization  and  Content  of  Education 

1.  Not  provided  by  State,  but  teachers  numerous  and   at 

reasonable  cost. 

2.  For  common  people  a  trade. 

3.  Elementary  school. 

a.  Commencing  at  5  years  of  age. 
&.  Open  to  all. 

c.  Reading,    writing,    numbers,    history,    geometry,    as- 

tronomy. 

d.  In  temple  courts. 

4.  Higher  education. 

a.  For  scribes,  architects,  physicians,  priests,  etc. 

b.  Mathematics,   mechanics,   medicine,   religion,   law,   as- 

tronomy, ritual,  ceremonies,  history,  literature. 

c.  In  temple  colleges. 

Method  of  Education 

1.  Memorizing  and  imitation. 

2.  Writing  with  stylus  on  wood  and  with  ink  on  papyrus. 

3.  Learning  numbers  by  play. 

4.  Some  investigation  and  invention  in  higher  instruction. 

5.  Discipline  severe  —  corporal  punishment. 


Education  in  Antiquity  3 

Teachers 

1.  Priests:  the  possessors  of  learning. 

2.  Many  private  teachers  of  elementary  subjects. 

3.  Held  in  reverence. 

Effects  of  Egyptian  Education 

1.  Preservation  of  social  distinctions. 

2.  A  high  civilization  for  the  time. 

3.  Numerous  schools. 

4.  Practical  and  professional  training,  but  no  science  for  sci- 

ence's sake. 

5.  Considerable  achievement  in  industrial  art,  medicine,  law, 

and  fine  arts. 

6.  Domination  of  priesthood. 

7.  Intellectual  development  little  valued. 

8.  Individuality  not  encouraged. 

ANCIENT  CHINESE  EDUCATION  (30x30-2000  B.C.  TO  MODERN 

TIMES) 

(Compayre:  Hist.  Fed.,  11-13;  Davidson:  Hist.  Educ.,  41- 
45  ;  Graves :  Hist.  Educ.,  55-76 ;  Hailman :  Hist.  Ped.,  0-17  ; 
Kemp:  Hist.  Educ.,  17-25;  Laurie:  Pre-Chr.  Educ.,  104- 
151 ;  Monroe:  Text-Bk.  in  Hist.  Educ.,  17-49,  Brief  Course, 
11-25;  Painter:  Hist.  Educ.,  ist  ed.,  9-15,  2d  ed.,  11-18; 
Payne:  Lects.  on  Hist.  Educ.,  3-8;  Seeley:  Hist.  Educ., 
20-28;  Williams:  Hist.  Anc.  Educ.,  33-45.) 

National  Conditions  and  Influences 

1 .  Great  size  and  age  and  population  of  the  country. 

2.  Geographical  isolation. 

3.  National  self-sufficiency  and  complacency. 


4  Outlines  of  the  History  of  Education 

4.  Suppression  of  individuality,  with  corresponding  respect  for 

a.  The  family, 

b.  The  State, 

c.  The  spirits  of  the  dead. 

5.  Reverence  for  traditional  ideas  and  customs,  with  an  unfail- 

ing belief  in  the  established  order  of  society. 

6.  Influence  of  Confucianism  :  a  system  of  natural  morality. 

7.  Formalism  in  life. 

Religion  and  Ethics 

1.  Ancestor  worship. 

2.  Recognition  of  a  Supreme  Power. 

3.  Truth  sanctioned  by  tradition. 

4.  Virtue  and  morality  a  matter  of  knowledge  and  observance 

of  fixed  ideas  and  customs. 

5.  No  appeal  to  reason. 

6.  Expediency  rather  than  righteousness. 

7.  Great  reverence  for  the  family  relationships. 

a.  Absolute  power  of  life  and  death  rested  in  head  of 

family. 

6.  Implicit  obedience  demanded  of  wife  and  children. 
c.  The  State  a  development  of  the  family  and  the  Emperor 

its  head. 

Purpose  of  Education 

1.  The  preservation  of  existing  conditions  and  institutions. 

2.  The  preparation  for  successive  examinations  on  definite 

requirements  unchanged  for  centuries :   the  sole  avenue 
to  success  in  life,  namely,  to  hold  public  office. 

3.  The  mastery  of  the  sacred  literature. 


Education  in  Antiquity  5 

Organization  of  Education 

1.  A  system  of  examinations,  not  of  schools;    yet  private 

schools  were  encouraged. 

2.  Hanlin  or  Imperial  Academy  at  the  head,  which  controlled 

examinations,  acted  as  cabinet  to  Emperor,  kept  public 
records  and  archives. 

3.  Empire  divided  into   18  provinces,  each  in  charge  of  a 

chancellor ;  provinces  into  252  counties,  each  in  charge 
of  a  subchancellor ;  and  counties  into  705  districts,  in 
charge  of  educational  mandarins. 

4.  Elementary  schools :    in  private  dwellings,  without  State 

control,  teachers  unlicensed.  Pupils  entered  at  age 
of  6  or  7  years.  School  hours  from  sunrise  to  5  P.M. 
and  continued  nearly  all  the  year. 

5.  The  examinations. 

a.  Preliminary  or  district  examinations,  covering  the  ele- 

mentary work. 

b.  County  examination,  admitting  to  first  degree :  "  Flour- 

ishing Talent "  (cf.  B.A.). 

c.  Provincial   examination,   admitting  to  second  degree: 

"  Promoted  Scholar  "  (cf.  M.A.). 

d.  Peking  examination,  admitting  to  third  degree :    "  Fit 

for  Office  "(cf.  Ph.  D.). 

e.  Final  examination,  admitting  to  the  Imperial  Academy. 

Content  of  Education 

i.  First  grade:  Reading,  writing,  rudimentary  arithmetic, 
learning  characters  of  language  (5000-30,000),  memoriz- 
ing without  explanation  of  the  Four  Books  and  the  Five 
Classics.  Covered  3  to  5  years. 


6  Outlines  of  the  History  of  Education 

2.  Second  grade :    Translation  of    sacred  books  into   more 

modern  Chinese,  explanation  of  the  meaning,  composition. 
Covered  4  to  5  years. 

3.  Third  grade :  Essay  writing,  imitation  of  style  and  thought 

of  sacred  books,  commentaries  on  them.     Covered  an 
indefinite  time. 

Method  of  Teaching 

1.  Memory  work. 

2.  Exact  imitation,  without  originality  —  use  of  tracing  paper. 

3.  Study  aloud  and  in  concert. 

4.  Rapid  repetition. 

5.  Individual  recitation. 

Teachers 

1.  Unsuccessful  candidates  for  degrees. 

2.  Unfortunate  recipients  of  degrees  who  have  no  office. 

3.  No  training  for  work,  no  license,  no  supervision. 

4.  Small  pay,  long  hours. 

5.  Rigid  discipline  —  use  of  rod. 

Results  of  Chinese  Education 

1.  A  stable  but  non-progressive  society. 

2.  Suppression  of  individuality. 

3.  Training  in  memory,  attention,  accuracy,  but  no  initiative, 

originality,  nor  independence  secured. 

4.  Form  not  content  the  object  of  attention. 

5.  Interest  totally  lacking  as  a  stimulus. 

6.  Recognition  of  absolute  authority. 

7.  Weak  moral  training. 

8.  Content  not  related  to  daily  duties  of  life. 

9.  Small  proportion  of  population  educated — women  not  at  all. 


Education  in  Antiquity  7 

ANCIENT  HINDU  EDUCATION  (c.  2000  B.C.  TO  MODERN  TIMES) 

(Compayre  :  Hist.  Fed.,  2-6 ;  Davidson :  Hist.  Educ.,  56-66  ; 
Graves:  Hist.  Educ.,  77-90;  Kemp:  Hist.  Educ.,  26-33; 
Laurie:  Pre-Chr.  Educ.,  157-177  ;  Monroe:  Brief  Course,  19- 
21 ;  Painter:  ist  ed.,  15-21,  2d  ed.,  18-23;  Seeley:  Hist. 
Educ.,  29-35  ;  Williams :  Hist.  Anc.  Educ.,  50-56.) 


National  Characteristics  and  Environment 

1.  Race. 

a.  Mingling  of  Aryan  blood  with  that  of  native  Hindus,  re- 
sulting in  loss  of  original  vigor ;  due  also  to  effect  of 
climate  and  religion. 

2.  Climate  enervating. 

3.  Country  fertile  and  rich  in  possibilities. 

4.  Religion. 

a.  Brahmanism :  pantheistic  for  the  intelligent  classes, 
polytheistic  for  the  masses. 

b.»  Self-annihilation  the  ideal,  leading  to  a  life  of  contempla- 
tion. 

c.  Buddhism  in  later  times :  based  on  moral  acts,  teaching 
unselfishness  and  brotherly  love. 

5.  Social  conditions. 

a.  Castes:  Brahmans,  soldiers,  traders,  slaves  (sudras). 

b.  No    opportunity    to    rise:    hence    lazy,    unambitious 

people. 

c.  Woman  regarded  as  man's  slave. 

Aim  or  Purpose  of  Education 

i 

1.  Preparation  for  life  to  come. 

2.  Preservation  of  caste  system. 


8  Outlines  of  the  History  of  Education 

Organization  and  Content  of  Education 

1.  Elementary. 

a.  Commencing  at  age  of  6  or  7  years. 

b.  For  all  classes  but  sudras. 

c.  In  open  air  or  sheds. 

d.  Reading,  writing,  rudimentary  arithmetic,  religious  ob- 

servances, laws,  traditions,  customs,  fables,  parables, 
allegories. 

2.  Higher. 

a.  For  Brahmans  chiefly,  but  open  to  a  limited  extent  to 

soldiers  and  traders. 

b.  In  Brahmanic  colleges. 

c.  Took  twelve  years  to  complete. 

d.  Religious  works  and  practices,  grammar,  mathematics, 

history,  poetry,  philosophy,  astronomy,  medicine,  law. 

e.  No  physical  education. 

Method  of  Education 

1.  Memory  training. 

2.  Repetition  without  comment  or  comprehension. 

3.  Studying  aloud. 

4.  Writing  on  sand,  on  palm  leaves  with  stylus,  and  on  plane 

leaves  with  ink. 

5.  Progress  slow. 

6.  Discipline  mild. 

Teachers 

1.  Brahmans :  those  who  had  completed  the  entire  course. 

2.  Held  in  high  respect. 

3.  Paid  by  voluntary  gifts. 

4.  "  Monitorial  "  system  of  pupil  teaching. 


Education  in  Antiquity  9 

Effects  of  Hindu  Education 

1 .  Rigid  caste  system  with  no  mutual  sympathy. 

2.  Gloomy  outlook  on  life  :  no  ambition  nor  responsibility. 

3.  No  mental  culture  nor  training  for  citizenship. 

4.  Cultivated  passive  virtues  solely. 

5.  Traditional  learning  mixed  with  superstition. 

6.  Some   contributions  to   succeeding  generations  in  philo- 

sophical and  mathematical  lines. 

ANCIENT  HEBREW  EDUCATION  (2000  B.C.-soo  A.D.) 

(Compayre:  Hist.  Fed.,  6-n;  Davidson:  Hist.  Educ.,  77- 
86;  Graves:  Hist.  Educ.,  110-137 ;  Kemp:  Hist.  Educ.,  45- 
54 ;  Laurie  :  Pre-Chr.  Educ.,  65-100 ;  Monroe :  Brief  Course, 
21-23;  Painter:  ist  ed.,  26-32,  2d  ed.,  27-33;  Seeley:  Hist. 
Educ.,  40-45  ;  Williams  :  Hist.  Anc.  Educ.,  86-94.) 

National  Characteristics 

1.  Religious:  theocratic,  monotheistic. 

2.  Domestic :  the  family  a  highly  respected  institution. 

3.  Agricultural. 

Educational  Ideals 

1.  Moral  and  religious. 

2.  Practical,  for  duties  of  life. 

Organization  of  Education 

i.  During  the  Biblical  period. 

a.  The  family,  for  elementary  grades. 

b.  Schools  of  the  Prophets,  for  the  higher  instruction  of 

scribes  and  priests. 


io  Outlines  of  the  History  of  Education 

2.  After  the  exile  and  return. 

a.  The  family,  for  early  instruction. 

b.  Elementary  school :  in  connection  with  synagogue  or  in 

scribe's  house  —  attendance  compulsory  in  towns. 

c.  Higher  instruction  in  synagogue. 

Content  of  Education 

1.  Elementary  grade:    For  boys:    reading,  writing,  a  little 

arithmetic,  history,  psalms,  religion,  a  trade.     For  girls : 
reading,  writing,  domestic  arts,  music,  dancing. 

2.  Higher  grade :    Law,  ethics,  religion,  mathematics,  astron- 

omy, geography,  literature. 

Method  of  Education 

1.  Repetition  and  memorizing. 

2.  Adaptation  to  pupils'  abilities. 

3.  Writing  on  wax  with  stylus  and  on  parchment  with  pen. 

4.  Disputation  in  higher  instruction. 

Teachers 

1.  Fathers  first,  then  scribes. 

2.  Highly  esteemed. 

3.  Must  be  capable,  experienced,  not  too  young,  and  married. 

4.  Paid  by  fees  or  presents,  and  usually  had  another  trade. 

Discipline 

1.  Rigorous ;  in  later  times  milder. 

2.  Corporal  punishment. 


Education  in  Antiquity  n 

Effects  of  Hebrew  Education 

1.  Practically  universal  compulsory  system. 

2.  Emphasis  upon  good  conduct  rather  than  upon  intellectual 

culture. 

3.  No  personal  investigation  —  dependence  upon  authority. 

4.  Narrow  range  of  study  —  Greek  and  Roman  culture  pro- 

scribed. 

5.  Made  nation  theocratic  and  religious. 

6.  A  limited  education  offered  to  women. 

7.  Through  the  Bible  has  influenced  succeeding  generations  in 

all  Christian  countries. 

ANCIENT  PERSIAN  EDUCATION  (c.  1000  B.C.~33i  B.C.) 
(Compayre :  Hist.  Ped.,  14-15;  Davidson:  Hist.  Educ.,  66- 
74 ;  Graves :  Hist.  Educ.,  91-103  ;  Kemp :  Hist.  Educ.  34- 
38;  Laurie:  Pre-Chr.  Educ.,  178-195;  Painter:  Hist.  Educ., 
ist  ed.,  21-26,  2d  ed.,  23-27;  Seeley:  Hist.  Educ.,  36-39; 
Williams:  Hist.  Anc.  Educ.,  73-80.) 

Natural  Influences 

1.  Country:  rugged,  mountainous,  too  broken  for  agriculture. 

2.  Climate :  temperate,  invigorating. 

3.  People:  hardy,  devoted  to  life  of  warfare,  loyal,  fair-minded. 

Social  Conditions 

1.  Caste  distinctions  little  recognized. 

2.  Strong  family  and  national  feeling. 

3.  Toleration  of  foreign  manners  and  religions. 

4.  Strong  government  at  home  and  over  provinces. 

5.  Religion :    Zoroastrianism,  dualism  —  morality  consisting 

of  the  cultivation  of  the  virtues :  truth,  justice,  gratitude, 
courage,  and  self-control. 


12  Outlines  of  the  History  of  Education 

Aim  of  Education 

i.  Military  and  physical,  with  training  in  valor  and  other 
manly  virtues. 

Organization  and  Content  of  Education 

1.  Family  up  to  7  years  of  age. 

2.  State-controlled  thereafter. 

3.  Physical  and  moral  up  to  15  years  of  age ;  then  military  and 

civil. 

4.  Boys  only. 

5.  State  control  extended  to  food  and  dress. 

6.  Individuality  trained,  for  moral  perfection. 

7.  Through  example,  imitation,  and  practice,  the  elders  assist- 

ing in  the  training  of  the  youth. 

8.  Higher  education  for  Magi  only:  philosophy,  astronomy, 

medicine,  law,  finance. 

Results  of  Persian  Education 

1.  A  courageous  and  powerful  people. 

2.  Personality  given  importance. 

3.  State  control  of  education  found  feasible. 

4.  Frugality  and  temperance  the  chief  virtues. 

5.  National  strength  endured  as  long  as  the  nation  remained 

military. 

6.  No  preparation  for  peace  and  leisure. 

7.  No  intellectual  and  literary  culture. 

8.  No  education  for  women. 


EDUCATION  IN  GREECE  AND  ROME 

GREEK  EDUCATION 

(Browning:  Educ.  Theories,  1-25;  Compayre:  Hist.  Fed., 
17-42;  Davidson:  Hist.  Educ.,  86-105,  Aristotle  6*  the  Anc. 
Educ.  Ideals,  3-37;  Graves:  Hist.  Educ.,  138-229;  Hailman: 
Hist.  Fed.,  18-30;  Kemp:  Hist.  Educ.,  55-56;  Laurie: 
Pre-Chr.  Educ.,  196-226;  Monroe:  Source-Bk.  in  Hist. 
Educ.,  1-15,  Text-Bk.,  57-70,  Brief  Course,  28-33;  Painter: 
Hist.  Educ.,  ist  ed.,  37-40,  2d  ed.,  41-46.) 

National  Conditions  that  influenced  Education 

1.  Race :  not  national  but  tribal. 

a.  Dorians:     unimaginative,    practical,    military    (repre- 

sented by  the  Spartans). 

b.  lonians:    imaginative,    artistic,    literary,  philosophical 

(represented  by  the  Athenians). 

c.  jEolians  (Thebans). 

d.  Achaeans. 

2.  Religion. 

a.  Polytheism :  gods  regarded  as  personalities. 

b.  Worship  of  the  beautiful  and  the  ideal  in  nature  and  in 

human  life. 

c.  Ceremonial :  prayer,  libations,  festivals,  games,  myster- 

ies, oracles,  divination. 

3.  Geography  and  climate. 

a.  Maritime,  with  commercial  possibilities. 

13 


14  Outlines  of  the  History  of  Education 

b.  Plains  and  mountains,  with  mild,  even  climate,  conducive 

to  happiness  and  equanimity ;  and  bracing  air  stimu- 
lating to  thought. 

c.  Islands  round  about  —  rivers  numerous  but  small. 

d.  Agriculture  not  extensive. 

e.  Made  necessary  distinct  states  instead  of  unified  nation. 
4.  People :  character  and  occupation. 

a.  Commercial   (products :    iron,   silver,   copper,   marble ; 

trades :  spinning,  weaving,  making  of  pottery,  armor, 
furniture,  etc.). 

b.  Maritime  and  adventurous. 

c.  Religious. 

d.  Patriotic  within  each  city-state. 

e.  Literary  and  military  in  different  states. 

Homeric  Period  of  Education  (1000-776  B.C.) 

(Davidson:  Hist.  Educ.,  86-94,  Aristotle  6*  the  Anc.  Educ. 
Ideals,  15-18,  33-34,  Educ.  of  the  Gk.  People,  53-63  ;  Graves : 
Hist.  Educ.,  146-148;  Grote:  Hist.  Greece,  v.  i,  ch.  20; 
Homer:  Iliad  (I,  52-302,  II,  35-380,  IX,  50-180,  438  ff.,  X, 
335-579,  XI,  617-804,  XVIII,  245-318,  XIX,  40-275,  XXIII, 
260  ff.,  etc.),  Odyssey;  Laurie:  Pre-Chr.  Educ.,  197-199; 
Mahaffy :  Social  Life  in  Greece,  1-74 ;  Monroe  :  Text-Bk.  in 
Hist.  Educ.,  62-67,  Brief  Course,  31-33,  Source-Bk.,  1-3 ; 
Taylor:  Anc.  Ideals,  127-194.) 

1.  Twofold  ideal. 

a.  Man  of  action  —  virtues :  bravery  and  reverence. 

b.  Man  of  wisdom  —  virtues :  prudence  and  temperance. 

2.  Purpose. 

a.  To  prepare  for  definite  practical  activity. 

b.  To  equip  for  martial  life  and  for  needs  of  life  at  home. 


Education  in  Greece  and  Rome  15 

3.  Organization. 

a.  Councils  (no  schools,  no  books). 

b.  Association  with  elders. 

c.  Daily  duties  of  life. 

4.  Content. 

a.  Military  exercises,  piety,  religion,  ethics,  music,  rhetoric, 
healing  art. 

5.  Method. 

a.  Imitative  and  at  the  same  iime  rational. 

b.  By  living  personal  example  rather  than  by  precept. 

c.  Offered  possibilities  of  growth :  germ  of  individualism. 

6.  Results. 

a.  A  civilization  of  high  ideals. 

b.  Advanced  ethical  culture. 

c.  Women  held   in   high   esteem  (trained  in  household 

arts). 

d.  Monogamy  —  piety  —  reverence. 

e.  Little  literary  instruction. 
/.  No  special  teachers. 

Historic  Greek  Education  (776-480  B.C.) 

(a)  At  Sparta 

(Barnard:  Journ.  of  Educ.,  v.  14,  611-624;  Compayre:  Hist. 
Ped.,  17-19 ;  Davidson :  Aristotle  &•  the  Anc.  Educ.  Ideals,  41- 
51;  Graves:  Hist.  Educ.,  149-157 ;  Kemp:  Hist.  Educ.,  55- 
61 ;  Laurie:  Pre-Chr.  Educ.,  228-248;  Monroe:  Source- 
Bk.,  i-n,  Text-Bk.,  70-79,  Brief  Course,  33-40;  Painter: 
Hist.  Educ.,  ist  ed.,  40-45,  2d  ed.,  41-46 ;  Seeley :  Hist.  Educ., 
68-73;  U-  S.  Com'r  Educ.  Kept.,  1897-1898,  v.  i,  518-521, 
571-589;  Williams:  Hist.  Anc.  Educ.,  95-106.) 


1 6  Outlines  of  the  History  of  Education 

1.  Ideal  or  aim. 

a.  To  develop  strength,  courage,  and  obedience  to  law. 

b.  To  make  brave,  patriotic  soldiers. 

c.  To  provide  a  physical,  military,  and  moral  education 

with  the  purpose  of  preserving  the  State  thereby. 

2.  Organization. 

a.  State  control  from  birth,  but  in  family  up  to  7  years 

of  age,  then  under  state  officer. 

b.  Life  in  common:   self-government  under  supervision  of 

adults. 

c.  Association  with  elders. 

d.  Women  had  similar  physical   and   moral   training   at 

home. 

e.  Higher  education  in  military  and  public  service. 

3.  Content. 

a.  Gymnastics :    training  in  hardening  and  discipline  —  a 

rigorous  life. 

b.  Hunting,  games,  contests,  dancing,  military  exercises. 

c.  Religious  and  martial  music. 

d.  Conversation  with  elders  —  concise  (laconic)  expression 

of  thought. 

e.  Practice  with  arms  —  real  military  life. 

4.  Method. 

a.  Imitation  —  practice  —  experience. 

6.  Conversation  and  association  with  adults. 

c.  Play  —  rivalry. 

d.  Appeal  to  patriotic  emotions  and  pride. 

e.  Community  idea,  not  individual. 

5.  Results  and  criticisms  of  Spartan  education. 

a.  Subordination  of  individual  to  State. 

b.  Physical  training  for  military  purposes. 

c.  Stable  but  not  progressive  society. 


Edjtcation  in  Greece  and  Rome  17 

d.  State  morality  rather  than  individual  responsibility  — 

moral  development  weak  when  personal  decisions  were 
demanded. 

e.  Great  patriotism  and  courage. 

/.   Neglect  of  literary,  artistic,  and  intellectual  training. 
g.  Failure  to  develop  the  highest  traits  of  character. 

(6)  At  Athens 

(Barnard  :  Journ.  of  Educ.,  v.  24,  453-486 ;  Compayre :  Hist. 
Fed.,  19-21 ;  Davidson:  Hist.  Educ.,  86-105,  Aristotle  6*  the 
Anc.  Educ.  Ideals,  60-92,  Educ.  of  the  Gk.  People,  53-77 ; 
Graves:  Hist.  Educ.,  157-170;  Kemp:  Hist.  Educ.,  62-83; 
Laurie :  Pre-Chr.  Educ.,  248-288 ;  Mahaffy :  Old  Gk.  Educ., 
1-77;  Monroe:  Source-Bk.,  11-33,  Text-Bk.,  79-100,  Brief 
Course,  40-51;  Painter:  Hist.  Educ.,  ist  ed.,  49-56,  2d  ed., 
55-63;  Seeley:  Hist.  Educ.,  56-60;  Williams:  Hist.  Anc. 
Educ.,  107-129.) 

1.  Ideal  or  aim. 

a.  To  develop  personality  by  some  form  of  achievement 

beyond  the  demands  of  society. 

b.  To  live  happily  and  beautifully. 

2.  Organization  and  content. 

a.  1-7,  in  family. 

b.  7-16,  in  elementary  schools. 

(1)  "  Music  "  and  gymnastics. 

(2)  In  charge  of  pedagogue. 

c.  16-18,  in  secondary  schools 

(1)  At  State  expense,  but  restricted  to  wealthier  and  more 

cultured  class. 

(2)  Advanced  physical  training,  civics,  ethics,  associa- 

tion with  elders. 


1 8  Outlines  of  the  History  of  ^Education 

d.  18-20,  as  registered  citizen  (ephebus)  in  charge  of  State 

officials. 

(1)  First  year  in  garrison  with  training  as  soldier. 

(2)  Second  year  on  duty  as  regular  soldier. 

(3)  Included  physical  training  for  military  service  with 

political  and  moral  instruction. 

e.  After  20,  full-fledged  citizen. 

(i)  Continued  physical,  intellectual,  and  moral  growth 

demanded  by  State. 
/.   Details  of  content. 

(1)  Gymnastics  :  physical  exercises  for  development  and 

gracefulness ;  games  for  quick  perception,  courage, 
and  moral  training ;  dancing  for  harmony  of  de- 
velopment ;  hunting  and  military  drill. 

(2)  Music:    poetry,   drama,   history,   science,   oratory, 

civics,  ethics,  religion,  musical  composition,  and 
instrumentation  (for  creative  power  and  apprecia- 
tion). 

3.  Method. 

a.  Imitation  of  living  models. 

b.  First  "  doing  "  to  form  habits,  second  "  learning  "  to 

render  habits  rational  and  permanent. 

c.  Writing  by  imitation  —  repetition  in  concert  —  memo- 

rizing with  explanation  afterwards. 

d.  Development  of  judgment,    discrimination,  initiative, 

and  the  creative  rational  side  of  the  personality. 

e.  Discipline  a  system  of  punishment  and  reward. 

4.  Results  and  criticisms  of  Old  Athenian  Education. 

a.  Definite  school  system,  under  State  control. 

b.  Stable,  free,  vigorous  social  organization. 

c.  Unrestricted  development  of  individuality. 

d.  "  Freedom  "  from  limitations,  in  expression  of  personality. 


Education  in  Greece  and  Rome  19 

e.  Life  of  reason,  of  morality,  of  beauty. 

/.   Culminated  in  great  achievements  along  intellectual, 

literary,  artistic,  and  political  lines. 
g.  Women's  training  restricted  to  household  duties. 

New  Greek  Education  (480-338  B.C.) :  at  Athens 

(Davidson:  Educ.  of  Gk.  People,  78-88,  103-115,  Aristotle  &• 
the  Anc.  Educ.  Ideals,  90-92,  97-113;  Graves:  Hist.  Educ., 
170-214;  Pre-Chr.  Educ.,  283-295;  Mahaffy:  Old  Gk. 
Educ.,  1-77;  Monroe:  Source-Bk.,  51-66,  Text-Bk.,  102-110, 
Brief  Course,  52-55.) 

1 .  Situation  at  beginning  of  the  new  period. 

a.  Supremacy  of  Athens,  culminating  in  the  Periclean  Age 

—  an  era  of  great  achievement. 

b.  Expansion. 

(1)  Commercial  and  industrial  growth. 

(2)  Intellectual  activity  —  literary  and  artistic  develop- 

ment. 

(3)  More  popular  government. 

c.  Foreign  relations. 

(1)  Interchange  of  customs  and  ideas. 

(2)  Change  of  views  and  practices. 

d.  New  tendencies  in  religion  and  philosophy. 

(1)  From  belief  in  arbitrary  control  of  the  gods  to  more 

scientific  ways  of  explaining  things  in  nature. 

(2)  Replacing  nature  with  man  in  the  search  for  reality. 

(3)  Emphasis  on  human  interests  in  literary  productions. 

2.  New  ideals. 

a.  Individual  development  greater  than  service  to  the  State 

—  personal  advancement. 

b.  Broader  democratic  ideals. 


20  Outlines  of  the  History  of  Education 

c.  Less  conservatism  —  more  toleration. 

d.  Overthrow  of  authority  and  tradition. 

e.  Political  ambition  —  gain. 

/.   Expediency  rather  than  righteousness. 
g.  Skepticism  and  license. 

3.  Effect  on  education. 

a.  Demand  for  a  broader  and  higher  education  to  promote 

individual  interests  rather  than  the  welfare  of  the 
State. 

b.  Desire  not  for  harmonious  development  but  for  knowl- 

edge that  would  contribute  to  advancement. 

c.  Emphasis  on  skill  in  debate  and  public  speaking. 

d.  Less  desire  for  physical  exercise. 

e.  More  freedom  of  choice  of  studies. 

/.   Introduction  of  new  subjects  and  new  methods  of  study. 

4.  The  Sophists. 

(Davidson :  Hist.  Educ.,  81-96,  Aristotle  &•  the  Anc.  Educ. 
Ideals,  101-107;  Graves:  Hist.  Educ.,  173-180;  Kemp: 
Hist.  Educ.,  72-73;  Laurie:  Pre-Chr.  Educ.,  284-287,  301- 
308 ;  Mahaffy,  Old  Gk.  Educ.,  78-90 ;  Monroe :  Source-Bk., 
91-116,  Text-Bk.,  110-120,  Brief  Course,  55-59.) 

a.  Teachers  professing  to  meet  these  demands. 

b.  Taught  extreme  individualism,  making  opinion  the  stand- 

ard of  truth. 

c.  Subjects   emphasized   in   this   development   of   higher 

education:  grammar,  poetry,  style,  oratory, 
rhetoric,  music,  and  mathematics,  natural  science, 
economics,  and  politics. 

d.  Methods :  disputation,  memorizing  set  speeches,  acquir- 

ing superficial  information,  formal  and  tricky 
argumentation. 


Education  in  Greece  and  Rome  21 

e.  Results  of   their   teaching:    extravagance,   skepticism, 
freedom,  art  of  persuasion. 

Educational  Writers  and  Theorists 
Pythagoras  (c.  582-500  B.C.) 

(Davidson :  Aristotle  &  the  Anc.  Educ.  Ideals,  52-59 ;  Graves : 
Hist.  Educ.,  177-178;  Kemp:  Hist.  Educ.,  70-72;  Painter: 
Hist.  Educ.,  ist  ed.,  45-49,  2d  ed.,  46-50 ;  Seeley :  Hist.  Educ., 
73;  Williams:  Hist.  Anc.  Educ.,  141-157.) 

1.  Early  life  and  education. 

a.  Native  of  Samos,  pupil  of  Thales,  educated  in  Egypt, 
founded  school  in  Crotona,  South  Italy. 

2.  Educational  doctrine. 

a.  Aim :  to  produce  harmony  and  proportion  in  life. 

b.  Theory :  number  is  the  essence  and  origin  of  all  things  — 

laws  of  numbers  are  the  laws  of  things  —  everything 
intelligible  can  be  explained  numerically  —  without 
number  all  is  chaos. 

c.  Socialistic  system :  in  opposition  to  individualistic  tend- 

ency of  sophists  on  analogy  of  harmony  of  celestial 
bodies  —  society  to  be  so  arranged,  as  to  put  each  man 
in  his  proper  place,  from  which  complete  harmony  and 
social  order  would  ensue. 

d.  Educational  scheme :    for  harmonizing  the  individual, 

through  music  as  the  means  of  gaining  harmony 
(worked  out  mathematically,  constituting  the  first 
scientific  treatment  of  music),  mathematics  (arith- 
metic, geometry,  astronomy),  religion  (basis  of  har- 
mony and  moral  action),  and  gymnastics. 

e.  Religious  doctrines  :  transmigration  of  the  soul,  retribu- 

tion, and  a  future  life. 


22  Outlines  of  the  History  of  Education 

Socrates  (469-399  B.C.) 

(Compayre :  Hist.  Fed.,  22-27 1  Davidson :  Educ.  of  Gk. 
People,  103-127  ;  Fitch :  Educ.  Aims  6*  Meths.,  ch.  2  ;  Graves : 
Hist.  Educ.,  180-184;  Hailman:  Hist.  Fed.,  31-41;  Kemp: 
Hist.  Educ.,  74-76 ;  Mahaffy :  Old  Gk.  Educ.,  78-90 ;  Monroe : 
Source-Bk.  of  Hist.  Educ.,  116-120,  Text-Bk.,  122-130,  Brief 
Course,  60-63 ;  Painter :  Hist.  Educ.,  ist  ed.,  56-60,  2d  ed., 
63-67  ;  Seeley :  Hist.  Educ.,  61-63  >  Williams :  Hist.  Anc. 
Educ.,  133-164.) 

1.  Life. 

a.  Early  life  and  training. 

(i)  Born  at  Athens  —  son  of  sculptor  —  trained  at  first 
for  that  occupation  —  saw  military  service  — 
early  devoted  himself  to  poetry,  then  to  philo- 
sophical studies. 

b.  Known  for  both  physical  and  moral  courage  and  for 

indifference  to  hardship. 

c.  Itinerant  teacher  —  in  conversation  with  all  who  would 

listen. 

2.  Relation  to  the  sophists. 

a.  Himself  a  superior  sophist. 

b.  Adopted  the  fundamental  positions  of  the  sophists  and 

supplemented  them. 

c.  Sophists  said,   "  Man  is  the  measure  of  all  things," 

meaning  individual  man;  hence  for  them  mere 
opinion  was  knowledge.  Socrates  said  that  the 
knowledge  that  is  common  to  all  men  is  truth,  and 
man  is  the  measure  of  all  things  only  so  far  as  the 
knowledge  by  which  he  judges  of  the  truth  has  this 
universal  validity. 


Education  in  Greece  and  Rome  23 

d.  Sophists  emphasized  man's  peculiarities  (sensations,  emo- 

tions) ;  Socrates,  man's  rational  and  universal  self. 

e.  Socrates  believed  that  by  removing  individual  differ- 

ences there  would  be  laid  bare  the  essentials  upon 
which  all  men  are  agreed. 

/.   He  differed  from  them  in  the  moral  value  of  "  right " 
knowledge. 

3.  The  problem  of  education  of  his  day. 

a.  Harmonizing  of  social  and  individual  interests. 

b.  Relation  of  knowledge  to  moral  conduct. 

4.  His  aim. 

a.  To  give  knowledge  to  the  individual  by  developing  in  him 

the  power  of  thought. 

b.  To  apply  the  doctrine  of  universal  knowledge  within  each 

person  to  moral  conduct;  right  "  knowledge  is 
virtue." 

5.  His  method. 

a.  Dialectic  :  conversational,  questioning. 

(1)  Irony:    questioning  to  clear  the  mind  of  error  or 

unverified  knowledge,  to  gain  a  true  estimate  of 
the  value  and  extent  of  one's  knowledge  (cf.  the 
preparation  step). 

(2)  Maieutics:  questioning  to  gain  new  truth,  to  develop 

in  the  individual  the  power  of  formulating  the 
truth  which  in  his  own  experience  and  in  his  own 
consciousness  has  universal  validity  (cf.  presenta- 
tion and  application  steps). 

b.  Discourse  disposing  to  reflection  on  experience  and  thus 

to  formulate  general  principles  which  may  be  a 
guide  to  moral  conduct. 

c.  Means  of  enabling  an  individual  to  pass  through  these 

three  stages  in  relation  to  the  knowledge  of  any 


24  Outlines  of  the  History  of  Education 

subject:  (i)  unconscious  ignorance,  (2)  conscious 
ignorance  with  desire  to  know  the  truth,  (3)  pos- 
session of  clear  and  reasoned  truth. 

d.  To  develop  moral  strength  by  creating  an  intelligent 
consciousness  of  what  one  does  and  the  reasons 
for  doing  it. 

6.  Influence  of  the  Socratic  Method. 

a.  Placed  emphasis  on  knowledge  that  would  contribute 

to  moral  development. 

b.  Replaced  the  formal  impartation  of  information  of  the 

sophists  with  the  conversational  method  designed 
to  generate  power  of  thinking  and  of  forming 
correct  conclusions. 

7.  Limitations  of  the  Socratic  Method. 

a.  Applicable   to   the   formulation   of    all    truth   that  is 

within  the  reason  of  every  individual,  as  ethical 
principles. 

b.  Applicable  to  the  discussion  and  consequent  clarifying 

of  facts  in  history,  philosophy,  or  any  science  that 
has  to  do  with  motive  or  conduct. 

c.  Not  adequate  to  supply  content  not  given  by  experience; 

as,  in  physical  science,  mathematics,  grammar. 

d.  Valuable,  however,  to  give  to  these  subjects  scientific 

form,  classification,  and  interpretation. 

e.  Useful  as  process  of  stimulating  thought  and  of  forming 

habits  of  correct  and  forcible  expression. 

8.  Effect  of  Socrates's  teaching  on  education. 

a.  Made  the  aim  of  teaching  to  develop  the  power  of  thought, 

not  to  impart  knowledge. 

b.  Made  knowledge,  however,  the  basis  of  action  by  empha- 

sizing its  practical  and  moral  worth. 
c. ''  Made  the  method  of  teaching  dialectic  and  reflective. 


Education  in  Greece  and  Rome  25 

Xenophon  (c.  430-355  B.C.) 

(Compayre:  Hist.  Fed.,  34-36;  Davidson:  Aristotle  6"  the 
Anc.  Educ.  Ideals,  114-132;  Graves:  Hist.  Educ.,  179; 
Monroe:  Source-Bk.  of  Hist.  Educ.,  35-50,  116-128,  Text-Bk., 
123  ;  Painter :  Hist.  Educ.,  ist  ed.,  23-24,  2d  ed.,  50-54,  Fed. 
Essays,  61-82.) 

1.  Early  life  and  education. 

a.  Native  of  Athens,  pupil  of  Socrates,  soldier,  writer  on 
history  and  philosophy. 

2.  Some  of  his  writings. 

a.  On  education :  Cyropedia  and  Economics. 

b.  On  history  and  philosophy :  Anabasis,  Hettenica,  Agesi- 

laus,  Memorabilia,  etc. 

3.  Educational  doctrine. 

a.  Purpose :  to  modify  the  excesses  in  the  life  of  the  Athe- 
nians, by  the  portrayal  of  an  ideal  of  life  that  would 
counteract  the  individualistic  tendencies  of  the 
sophists. 

&.  In  Cyropedia. 

(1)  Professes  to  describe  the  education  of  the  Persian 

soldier. 

(2)  Thought  to  be  intended  to  laud  the  Spartan  educa- 

tion. 

(3)  Recommends  State  education,  emphasizing  military 

duty,  justice  (by  the  study  of  history),  temperance 
(by  practice),  and  physical  training,  with  no  atten- 
tion to  domestic  education,  individual  liberty,  or 
intellectual  training. 

c.  In  Economics :  describing  the  education  of  women, 
(i)  Relates  to  the  practice  at  Athens. 


26  Outlines  of  the  History  of  Education 

(2)  Offers  no  intellectual  training  except  as  the  wife  is 
instructed  by  the  husband;  chiefly  a  training  in 
domestic  duties,  care  of  household  and  children, 
kindness  to  servants,  order,  economy,  discretion. 

Plato  (429-348  B.C.) 

(Compayre:  Hist.  Fed.,  27-34;  Davidson:  Educ.  of  the  Gk. 
People,  128-151,  Aristotle  &°  the  Anc.  Educ.  Ideals,  133-150; 
Graves :  Hist.  Educ.,  184-197  ;  Hailman :  Hist.  Fed.,  31-41 ; 
Kemp : .  Hist.  Educ.,  76-78 ;  Mahaffy :  Old  Gk.  Educ.,  99-115  ; 
Monroe :  Source-Bk.,  129-264,  Text-Bk.,  130-146,  Brief  Course, 
63-68;  Painter:  Hist.  Educ.,  ist  ed.,  60-62,  2d  ed.,  67-73, 
Fed.  Essays,  7-32;  Seeley:  Hist.  Educ.,  63-65;  Williams: 
Hist.  Anc.  Educ.,  165-175.) 

1.  Life. 

a.  Early  training. 

(i)  Son  of  noble  Athenian  family  —  had  careful  educa- 
tion —  early  devoted  to  poetry  —  pupil  of  Soc- 
rates —  began  study  of  philosophy. 

b.  Teacher. 

(i)  Founded  the  school  at  Athens,  known  as  "  The 
Academy  "  —  taught  gratuitously  —  became  the 
"  great  theorizer." 

c.  Writer  on  education. 

(1)  The  Republic :  The  ideal  state  and  a  form  of  socialis- 

tic education  proper  for  it. 

(2)  The  Laws :   A  modification  of  the  Republic  —  more 

conservative. 

2.  Relation  to  Socrates. 

a.  Built  upon  his  work. 

b.  Agreed  as  to  aim  of  education :  that  virtue  consisted  in 


Education  in  Greece  and  Rome  27 

knowledge,  but  went  further  and  sought  the 
nature  of  knowledge. 

c.  Disagreed  with  Socrates's  belief  that  all  minds  are  capable 

of  attaining  knowledge. 

d.  Accepted  and  elaborated  the  dialectic  method,  denning 

it  as  "  continuous  discourse  with  one's  self." 

3.  His  theory  of  ideas. 

a.  The  "  idea  "  is  universal  truth,  the  only  true  reality 

—  it  is  the  imperishable  essence  which  gives  real- 
ity to  the  substantial  form  in  which  it  exists. 

b.  The  more  nearly  perfect  the  harmony  between  an  object 

and  the  idea  from  which  it  emanates,  the  more 
truly  the  object  will  perform  its  true  function,  i.e. 
approximate  the  good  for  that  phenomenal  exist- 
ence. 

c.  Knowledge  is  the  recognition  of  this  harmony  between 

the  object  and  the  idea,  i.e.  of  its  true  function  or 
the  good. 

d.  Dialectic  became  the  study  of  ideas  or  the  higher  intel- 

lectual life. 

4.  His  educational  ideal. 

a.  As  an  essential  of  social  and  individual  welfare  each  per- 

son should  devote  his  life  to  that  which  he  is  by 
nature  best  fitted  to  do. 

b.  The  function  of  education  should  be  to  determine  what 

each  individual  is  by  nature  best  fitted  to  do  and 
then  to  prepare  him  for  this  service. 

5.  The  educational  scheme  of  the  Republic, 
a.  Ideal  society. 

(1)  The  expression  of  social  justice. 

(2)  Intellectual  aristocracy. 

(3)  Communistic  organization. 


28  Outlines  of  the  History  of  Education 

b.  Analysis  of  the  individual. 

(1)  Three  faculties:    (a)  intellect  or  reason;    (6)  spirit 

or  fortitude ;  (c)  desire  or  temperance. 

(2)  United  they  control  conduct  and  form  justice  or 

virtue. 

c.  Analysis  of  society  and  its  educational  needs. 

(1)  Three  classes:   (a)  philosophers  or  rulers  (cf.  intel- 

lect), who  are  devoted  to  the  pursuit  of  knowledge 
and  whose  virtue  is  wisdom;  (b)  soldiers  (cf. 
spirit),  who  are  devoted  to  warfare  and  whose 
virtue  is  honor;  (c)  industrial  class  (cf.  desire), 
who  are  devoted  to  trade  and  whose  virtue  is 
money  making. 

(2)  Membership  to  be  determined  not  by  caste  rule, 

but  by  development  of  the  individual  per- 
sonality through  education,  which  was  to  qualify 
one  for  the  class  for  which  he  was  by  nature 
fitted. 

d.  State  control  recognized. 

(i)  Family  life  to  be  abolished  —  no  private  prop- 
erty —  supervision  of  marriage  and  children  — 
direction  of  early  training  both  physical  and  in- 
tellectual. 

e.  Periods  of  education. 

(1)  1-7,  with  mother. 

(2)  7-16,  in  state  school. 

(3)  *7~2o,  in  military  life. 

(4)  20-30,  in  higher  scientific  instruction. 

(5)  3°~35>  in  study  of  dialectic  and  philosophy. 

(6)  35-50,  in  service  of  State. 

(7)  After  50,  in  retirement,  for  life  of  study  and  con- 

templation. 


Education  in  Greece  and  Rome  29 

/.   Content  of  education. 

(1)  Primary :  play,  physical  exercises,  fairy  tales. 

(2)  Elementary :  music  and  gymnastics. 

(3)  Secondary :  military  gymnastics. 

(4)  Higher :  sciences  of  mathematics,  astronomy,  music, 

followed  by  dialectic  and  philosophy. 
g.  Education  for  women. 

(1)  Practically  the  same  as  for  men. 

(2)  No  sex  distinction  in  professional  life. 

6.  Modifications  in  the  scheme  as  set  forth  in  the  Laws. 

a.  Return  to  old  Greek  models. 

b.  Hereditary  prince  to  rule,  together  with  priests  of  new 

religion  (based  on  astrology). 

c.  Strict  supervision  of  education  by  the  State,  especially 

of  the  literary  element. 

d.  Education  to  culminate  in  mathematics  or  astrology 

rather  than  philosophy. 

7.  Influence  of  Plato's  Theories  of  Education, 
a.  Compulsory  State  education. 

6.  Adaptation  of  education  to  pupils. 

c.  Education  to  determine  careers  and  to  fit  youth  for 

them. 

d.  Formulation  of  idea  of  liberal  education. 

(i)  Harmonious  development  of  personality. 

e.  Outline  of  curriculum  that  was  followed  long  after. 

/.   Emphasis  on  disciplinary  value  rather  than  practical 

value  of  studies. 
g.  Formation  of  philosophical  schools. 

(i)  Establishment   of   worth   of   life   apart   from   the 

practical  and  from  service  to  State. 
h.  First  organized  system  of  education. 


3O  Outlines  of  the  History  of  Education 

Aristotle  (384-322  B.C.) 

(Barnard:  Journ.  of  Educ.,  v.  14,  133-146;  Compayre: 
Hist.  Fed.,  36-40;  Davidson:  Educ.  of  Gk.  People,  152-176, 
Aristotle  &  the  Anc.  Educ.  Ideals,  153-202;  Graves:  Hist. 
Educ.,  197-214;  Hailman:  Hist.  Fed.,  31-41 ;  Kemp:  Hist. 
Educ.,  79-80 ;  Laurie  :  Pre-Chr.  Educ.,  295-300 ;  Mahaffy : 
Old  Gk.  Educ.,  99-115;  Monroe:  Source-Bk.  of  Hist.  Educ., 
265-294,  Text-Bk.,  146-160,  Brief  Course,  68-73;  Painter: 
Hist.  Educ.,  ist  ed.,  62-65,  2d  ed.,  73-77,  Ped.  Essays,  33-60; 
Seeley :  Hist.  Educ.,  65-67 ;  Williams ;  Hist.  Anc.  Educ., 
176-186.) 

1.  Life. 

a.  First  period :  born  at  Stagira  in  Macedonia  —  went  to 

Athens  and  became  pupil  of  Plato. 

b.  Teacher:   at  47  was  teacher  of  Alexander  the  Great  — 

at  50  founded  the  Peripatetic  School,  called  "  the 
Lyceum,"  at  Athens. 

c.  Writers  author  of  Politics  and  Ethics,  touching  upon  edu- 

cation—  also  other  works  upon  logic,  rhetoric, 
psychology,  physics,  metaphysics,  and  zoology. 

2.  Relations  to  Socrates  and  Plato. 

a.  Virtue  not  possession  of  knowledge,  as  they  said,  but  a 

state  of  the  will. 

b.  End  of  education  not  knowledge  which  for  them  was 

virtue,  but  happiness  or  goodness,  the  attainment 
of  which  brought  virtue,  i.e.  instead  of  the  de- 
velopment of  the  intellect  alone,  it  was  the  union 
of  the  intellect  and  the  will,  or  knowledge  ex- 
pressed in  action. 

c.  Reality  not  ideas  (Plato)  but  the  performance  of  the 

highest  function  by  any  phenomenon. 


Education  in  Greece  and  Rome  31 

(i)  Ideas  have  no  independent  reality,  but  exist  as  forms 

embodied  in  objects,  giving  them  individuality. 
His  theories  and  ideals. 

a.  Goodness  the  end  of  existence  for  the  State  as  well  as 

for  the  individual. 

b.  The  State  to  provide  organized  education  as  a  means 

to  that  end. 

c.  Goodness  means  goodness  of  intellect  (well-being)  and 

goodness  of  action  (well-doing),  thus  comprehend- 
ing both  individual  and  social  elements. 

(1)  The  first  the  result  of  teaching,  experience,  and  time. 

(2)  The  second  the  outcome  of  habit. 

d.  Happiness  is  then  the  putting  into  operation  in   life 

with  one's  fellows  of  the  universal  principles  of 
conduct. 
The  educational  scheme  of  the  Politics. 

a.  Adaptation  of  education  to  the  form  of  government. 

b.  Aim:   to  provide  properly  equipped  and  properly  dis- 

posed citizens  (constituting  a  life  of  intellectual 
activity  and  practical  service) . 

c.  State  control  of  the  whole  life. 

d.  Three  phases  of  education  and  their  content. 

(1)  First,  of  the  body :  by  gymnastics,  resulting  in  good 

habits  and  self-control. 

(2)  Second,  of  the  irrational  part  of  the  soul,  that  is,  the 

emotions:   by   music,    literature,    and   aesthetics, 
providing  moral  and  intellectual  culture. 

(3)  Third,  of  the  rational  part  of  the  soul,  preparing  for 

active  service  for  the  State  through  the  sciences 
and  philosophy. 

e.  Periods  of  education. 

(i)  1-7,  trained  by  parent :  play  and  moral  instruction. 


32  Outlines  of  the  History  of  Education 

(2)  7-15,  in  charge  of  State:  physical  exercises,  music, 

writing,  drawing. 

(3)  15-21,  music,  civil  and  military  service. 

(4)  After  21,  mathematical  science  and  dialectic. 
/.   For  all  citizens. 

(i)  Artisans  and  slaves  excluded  as  they  could  not  attain 

citizenship. 
g.  Education  of  women. 

(i)  Very  limited,  since  they  were  regarded  as  different 

from  men  and  not  capable  of  profiting  by  higher 

intellectual  training. 

5.  Method  of  education. 

a.  Objective  and  scientific,  as  opposed  to  the  introspective 

method  of  Plato. 

b.  Inductive  and  deductive,  applied  to  previous  systems  of 

Greek  thought  and  to  new  fields  of  investigation. 

6.  Influence  of  Aristotle. 

a.  Immediate  influence  not  great. 

b.  Founder  of  modern  science  by  the  formulation  and  appli- 

cation of  the  inductive  method. 

c.  Created  system  of  logical  and  scientific  terminology. 

d.  Originated  the  doctrine  of  formal  discipline. 

e.  Contributed  to  the  formulation  of  Christian  doctrine. 

/.  Influence  extended  through  spread  of  his  works  to  other 
countries  and  their  translation  into  other  languages, 
especially  the  Arabic. 

Other  Writers  and  Thinkers  who  influenced  Education 

1.  Lycurgus  (85<D-c.  800  B.C.)  — lawgiver. 

2.  Solon  (c.  638-c.  558  B.C.)  — lawgiver. 

3.  Thales  (c.  624-548  B.C.)  —  "  father  of  Greek  philosophy." 

4.  ^Eschylus   (524-456  B.C.),   Sophocles    (497-406  B.C.),   and 


Education  in  Greece  and  Rome  33 

Euripides  (c.  485-406  B.C.)  —  writers  of  tragedy  who 
attempted  to  preserve  the  old  system  of  morality  in 
opposition  to  teachings  of  sophists. 

5.  Herodotus  (484-0.  424  B.C.)  —  "  father  of  history." 

6.  Thucydides  (c.  465-0.    400  B.C.)  —  the  most  illustrious 

historian  of  the  Greeks. 

7.  Protagoras  (c.  485-0.  411  B.C.)  — one  of  the  greatest  of  the 

sophists,  to  whom  is  attributed  the  formula  "  man  is 
the  measure  of  all  things." 

8.  Aristophanes  (445-380  B.C.)  —  writer  of   comedy,  a  con- 

servative, who  parodied  the  new  teachings  of  the  sophists. 

9.  Isocrates  (436-338  B.C.)  —  rhetorician,  pupil  of  Socrates. 

10.  Demosthenes  (384-322  B.C.)  — orator. 

11.  Pyrrho  (365-275  B.C.)  —  first  skeptic. 

12.  Epicurus  (341-270  B.C.)  — founder  of  school  of  the  Epi- 

cureans, who  made  pleasure  the  end  of  life. 

13.  Zeno  (340-265  B.C.)  —  founder  of  Stoic  school  of  philos- 

ophy. 

14.  Chrysippus  (280-209  B.C.)  —  more  scientific  Stoic. 

Later  Greek  Education  of  the  Imperial  Period  (338-146  B.C.) 

(Ball :  Hist.  Math.,  chs.  4-5  ;  Cajori :  Hist.  Math.,  34-62  ; 
Davidson:  Hist.  Educ.,  117-120,  Educ.  of  the  Gk.  People, 
177-202,  Aristotle  6*  the  Anc.  Educ.  Ideals,  206-213  ;  Graves : 
Hist.  Educ.,  215-229;  Mahaffy:  Old  Gk.  Educ.,  116-140; 
Monroe :  Source-Bk.  of  Hist.  Educ.,  295-326,  Text-Bk.,  160- 
173,  Brief  Course,  73-78.) 

i.  Character. 

a.  Individualistic,  rather  than  social  or  civic. 

b.  Intellectual  life  greatly  esteemed. 

c.  Education  superficial  and  showy. 


34  Outlines  of  the  History  of  Education 

2.  Extension  of  Greek  culture. 

a.  Through   military  conquest,  Greek  learning,  art,   and 

institutions  were  carried  to  all  cities  of  the  East. 
6.  Theaters,  libraries,  baths,  palaces,  schools. 
c.  Universal  culture. 

3.  New  types  of  schools. 

a.  Rhetorical  schools. 

(1)  Preparing  for  practical  activities  of  life. 

(2)  Offering    linguistic    and    literary    training    solely, 

through  study  of  rhetoric  and  public  speaking. 

(3)  Later,  formal  and  narrow  methods  were  common. 

(4)  Really  a  form  of  private  education,  but  an  important 

part  of  the  higher  educational  system. 

b.  Philosophical  and  dialectic  schools. 

(1)  Offering  training  in  exposition  and  criticism  of  writ- 

ings without  originality. 

(2)  Teaching  formal  dogmas  chiefly. 

(3)  Chief  schools:    Peripatetics   (Aristotle),   Academy 

(Plato),  Epicureans  (Epicurus),  Stoics  (Zeno), 
Skeptics  (Pyrrho). 

4.  Beginnings  of  universities. 

a.  Outgrowth  of  the  rhetorical  and  philosophical  schools. 

b.  University  of  Athens. 

(1)  Athens  the  center  of  learning  —  many  students  — 

intellectual  education  universal  —  schools  com- 
bined into  one  institution  which  the  youth  were 
compelled  by  State  to  attend. 

(2)  Work  in  philosophy,  science,  literature,  grammar, 

and  rhetoric  —  many  teachers — pupils  from  many 
lands  —  fees  charged  —  course  from  3  to  7  years  — 
student  organizations. 

(3)  University  later  supported  by  Roman  emperors. 


Education  in  Greece  and  Rome  35 

c.  University  of  Alexandria. 

(1)  Displaced  Athens  in  third  century  A.D.  as  center  of 

culture. 

(2)  Grew  out  of  library  and  museum  founded  by  the 

Ptolemies  about  300  B.C. 

(a)  Greek,    Egyptian,    Babylonian,    Assyrian,    and 
Jewish  manuscripts. 

(3)  Taught  philosophy,  letters,  science,  theology. 

(a)  Zoroastrianism,  Judaism,  Hellenistic  philosophy, 
Christianity. 

(4)  Distinguished  scholars:    Clement,  Origen,  Euclid, 

Archimedes,  Diophantes. 

(5)  Destroyed  in  640  A.D.  in  Mohammedan  conquest. 

ROMAN  EDUCATION 

(Browning :  Educ.  Theories,  26-43  >  Compayre :  Hist.  Fed., 
43-60;  Davidson:  Hist.  Educ.,  105-111;  Graves:  Hist. 
Educ.,  230-271 ;  Hailman:  Hist.  Fed..  42-51 ;  Kemp:  Hist. 
Educ.,  84-96  ;  Laurie :  Pre-Chr.  Educ.,  301-436  ;  Monroe  : 
Source-Bk.,  327-509,  Text-Bk.,  176-213,  Brief  Course,  81-99; 
Painter  :  Hist.  Educ.,  ist  ed.,  65-79,  2d  ed.,  77-80.) 

Introduction 

i.  National  characteristics. 

a.  Geographical  situation  compelled  an  aggressive  spirit. 

6.  Genius  of  the  people :  practical,  subordinating  the  indi- 
vidual to  the  State,  with  respect  for  law  and  love 
for  military  life. 

c.  The  family  very  important. 

(1)  Absolute  authority  of  the  father. 

(2)  High  respect  for  and  great  influence  of  the  mother. 


36  Outlines  of  the  History  of  Education 

d.  Social  classes  :  patricians,  plebeians,  and  slaves. 

e.  Religion :  nature  worship,  personification. 
2.  Ideals  of  Roman  education. 

a.  Based  upon  clearly  defined  rights  with  correlative  duties. 

b.  Aimed  at  practical  virtues,  as  exemplified  in  living  men 

or  well-known  historical  personages. 

c.  Life  was  conceived  in  terms  of  duty. 

(1)  The  home  the  starting  place. 

(2)  The  study  of  biography  for  types  of  manhood. 

(3)  Imitation  the  chief  characteristic. 

Early  Roman  Education  (776-250  B.C.) 

(Compayre  :  Hist.  Ped.,  43-45  ;  Davidson :  Hist.  Educ.,  106- 
108 ;  Graves :  Hist.  Educ.,  236-245  ;  Laurie :  Pre-Chr.  Educ., 
301-323;  Monroe:  Source-Bk.,  327-345,  Text-Bk.,  176-193, 
Brief  Course,  86-88  ;  Painter :  Hist.  Educ.,  ist  ed.,  65-67,  2d 
ed.,  77-80;  Williams:  Hist.  A nc.  Educ.,  187-200.) 

1.  Aim :  practical,  moral,  social. 

2.  Organization:    centered  in  the  home  —  the  child  in  the 

mother's  charge  —  the  boy  in  the  father's  care. 

3.  Content :  Laws  of  the  Twelve  Tables,  religious  and  choral 

service,  practical  training  in  business,  farming,  civic 
duties,  and  military  life,  reading,  writing,  rudimentary 
calculation,  for  boys  ;  and  household  duties  for  girls. 

4.  Method :  imitation,  practice,  apprenticeship. 

5.  Effect :  a  nation  of  warriors  and  loyal  citizens,  a  selfish  and 

stern  people,  narrow  and  without  high  ideals,  thoroughly 
practical  —  an  effective  training  for  a  small  state. 


Education  in  Greece  and  Rome  37 

Roman  Education  under  Greek  Influence  (250  B.C.-2OO  A.D.) 

(Compayre  :  Hist.  Fed.,  45  ;  Davidson  :  Hist.  Educ.,  109-111, 
Educ.  of  Gk.  People,  203-229;  Graves:  Hist.  Educ.,  245- 
267  ;  Kemp  :  Hist.  Educ.,  85-88  ;  Laurie :  Pre-Chr.  Educ., 
323-3S4,  393-394;  Monroe:  Source-Bk.,  342-355,  37I~42o, 
Text-Bk.,  193-206,  Brief  Course,  88-95 1  Painter :  Hist. 
Educ.,  ist  ed.,  68-71,  2d  ed.,  81-85  ;  Preston  &  Dodge :  Priv. 
Life  of  Roms.,  ch.  3;  Seeley:  Hist.  Educ.,  74-80;  Williams: 
Hist.  Anc.  Educ.,  201-233.) 

1.  Conditions  effecting  a  change. 

a.  Political  expansion  of  Rome  and  ultimate  conquest  of 

Greece  by  Rome. 

b.  Coming  of  Greek  slaves,  freedmen,  and  teachers  to  Rome. 

c.  Introduction  of  Greek  customs  and  ideas,  with  gradual 

absorption  of  Greek  culture. 

2.  Aim:    increasingly   literary,   intellectual,  and  individual, 

leading  to  a  mastery  of  the  language,  at  the  same  time 
retaining  its  old  practical  purpose. 

3.  Organization  and  content. 

a.  Elementary  school :   the  ludus,  also  called  the  school  of 

the  literator,  or  of  the  Greek  grammatist,  instruction  in 
reading,  writing,  arithmetic,  Greek,  translation  of 
Homer's  Odyssey,  some  Latin  works,  the  Laws  of  the 
Twelve  Tables. 

b.  Secondary  school :  the  school  of  the  grammaticus,  includ- 

ing both  the  Greek  and  the  Latin  grammar  schools : 
giving  instruction  in  the  Greek  and  Latin  languages 
and  literatures,  history  and  science,  some  mathematics, 
dialectics,  music,  and  declamation. 

c.  Higher  school :  the  school  of  the  rhetor,  providing  prep- 


38  Outlines  of  the  History  of  Education 

aration  for  the  duties  of  orator,  lawyer,  and  public 
official:     giving    instruction    in    literature,    science, 
philosophy,    history,    law,    oratory,    debate,    public 
speaking. 
d.  Gymnastics  not  taught  in  school  but  in  military  life. 

4.  Methods :  memoriter  and  imitative  in  elementary  work,  in- 

cluding learning  by  heart,  reproduction,  paraphrase, 
dictation,  and  composition — much  practice  in  dispu- 
tation and  debate  in  higher  grades,  with  training  in 
analysis,  criticism,  elaboration,  and  argumentation. 

5.  Teachers. 

a.  In  early  times,  no  license  nor  qualifications  were  re- 

quired —  remuneration  small  —  social  status  low. 

b.  In  later  times,  through  Greek  influence  and  training, 

better  preparation  was  demanded,  much  skill  found, 
literary  culture  necessary,  teachers  well  paid  by  fees 
or  even  by  State,  and  held  in  considerable  esteem. 

6.  Other  evidences  of  educational  activity. 

a.  Libraries  and  universities:    the  former  brought  over 

from  Greece  —  many  founded  later  by  emperors  — 
made  nucleus  of  universities  —  the  latter  gave  formal 
instruction  in  literature,  law,  medicine,  philosophy, 
architecture,  mechanics,  and  mathematics. 

b.  State  schools :  in  most  towns  —  supported  but  not  super- 

vised by  State  —  teachers  granted  special  privileges : 
salaries,  license,  scholarships. 

c.  Roman  literature:  poets,  dramatists,  historians,  philos- 

ophers, moralists  flourished,  of  whom  notable  ex- 
amples are  Horace,  Vergil,  Terence,  Plautus,  Caesar, 
Sallust,  Nepos,  Livy,  Tacitus,  Cicero,  Seneca,  Quin- 
tilian,  Martial,  Pliny,  Juvenal,  Suetonius,  Marcus 
Aurelius,  etc. 


Education  in  Greece  and  Rome  39 

Roman  Educational  Theorists 
Cicero  (106-43  B.C.)  —  Statesman,  Orator,  and  Philosopher 

(Laurie :  Pre-Chr.  Educ.,  350-352  ;  Monroe :  Source-Bk.,  421- 
444,  Text-Bk.,  207,  Brief  Course,  96 ;  Painter :  Hist.  Educ., 
ist  ed.,  71-73,  2d  ed.,  85-89,  Fed.  Essays,  83-96;  Seeley: 
Hist.  Educ.,  81-84;  Williams:  Hist.  Anc.  Educ.,  237-240.) 

1.  Life  and  training. 

a.  Born  of  good  family  —  studied  literature  and  philosophy 
at  Rome,  at  Athens,  and  in  Asia  —  entered  political 
life  —  filled  many  offices  —  was  banished  —  devoted 
himself  to  study  and  writing  —  author  of  many  books 
on  philosophy,  oratory,  rhetoric,  politics,  criticism, 
among  them  De  Oratore. 

2.  His  ideal :  the  training  of  an  orator  who  was  to  be  the  prac- 

tical educated  man  of  the  world. 

3.  His  theories. 

a.  Education  should  begin  with  earliest  childhood. 

b.  The  environment  and  occupation  of  the  child  should  be 

favorable  to  refinement  and  development. 

c.  Religion  and  moral  culture  important  elements  in  edu- 

cation. 

d.  Individual  tastes  and   talents    should  determine   the 

vocation. 

e.  Memory  to  be  trained  by  committing  many  selections. 
/.   Much  writing  develops  fluency  of  expression  and  clear- 
ness of  judgment. 

g.  The  arts  through  which  one  serves  the  State  constitute 
the  greatest  wisdom  and  the  highest  virtue. 

h.  Broad  knowledge  of  things  and  of  men  is  essential  to 
liberal  culture  and  efficiency  in  life. 

i.  A  graceful  and  forceful  style  should  be  cultivated. 


4O  Outlines  of  the  History  of  Education 

Seneca    (3  B.C.-65  A.D.)  — Statesman,  Stoic    Philosopher, 

and  Writer 

(Monroe:  Source-Bk.  of  Hist.  Educ.,  393-400,  Text-Bk.,  206, 
Brief  Course,  96;  Painter:  Hist.  Educ.,  ist  ed.,  74-76,  2d 
ed.,  89-93,  Fed-  Essays,  97-102  ;  Seeley :  Hist.  Educ.,  84-86 ; 
Williams :  Hist.  Anc.  Educ.,  240-244.) 

1.  Life  and  training. 

a.  Son  of  teacher  of  rhetoric  —  trained  in  oratory  —  stud- 
ied Stoic  philosophy  —  became  lawyer  and  entered 
public  life  —  was  banished  —  devoted  himself  to  phi- 
losophy and  to  writing  —  author  of  numerous  works, 
among  them  On  the  Education  of  Children. 

2.  His  educational  ideal :    that  education  should  be  (a)  em- 

phatically moral,  in  order  to  correct  the  evil  tendencies 
of  nature ;  and  (6)  practical,  in  order  to  prepare  for  a 
life  of  thought  and  action. 

3.  His  educational  and  philosophical  theories. 

a.  Goodness  is  the  supreme  end  of  life. 

b.  Philosophy  is  the  chief  of  liberal  sciences. 

c.  Teaching  should  be  adapted  to  the  capacities  of  pupils. 

d.  Example  and  environment  are  stronger  than  precept. 

e.  Narrow  thoroughness  is  better  than  superficial  breadth. 
/.   Discipline  and  gymnastics  in  moderation  are  both  of 

value. 

g.  Teachers  should  be  worthy  of  high  respect. 
h.  Direct  imitation  is  the  most  effectual  method. 

Quintilian  (35-95  A.D.) 

(Barnard:  Journ.  of  Educ.,  v.  n,  110-132  ;  Browning:  Educ. 
Theories,  26-34;  Compayre:  Hist.  Fed.,  47-52;  Davidson: 
Aristotle  &  the  Anc.  Educ.  Ideals,  214-224;  Kemp:  Hist. 


Education  in  Greece  and  Rome  41 

Educ.,  88-89  >  Laurie :  Pre-Chr.  Educ.,  355-389 ;  Monroe, 
Source-Bk.,  445-509,  Text-Bk.,  207-208,  Brief  Course,  96; 
Painter :  Hist.  Educ.,  ist  ed.,  76-79,  2d  ed.,  93-97,  Fed.  Essays, 
103-124;  Seeley:  Hist.  Educ.,  86-88 ;  Williams:  Hist.  Anc. 
Educ.,  244-254.) 

1.  Life  and  work. 

a.  Born  a  Spaniard  —  became  a  Roman  teacher  of  rhetoric 
—  was  first  public  instructor  that  was  paid  by  State, 
occupying  the  ch,air  of  oratory  at  Rome  —  author  of 
Institutes  of  Oratory. 

2.  His  aim  :  to  train  "  the  good  man  skilled  in  speaking." 

3.  His  educational  scheme  and  doctrines. 

a.  Elementary  education. 

(1)  In  hands  of  parent,  nurse,  and  teacher. 

(2)  To  be  begun  in  infancy. 

(3)  Child's  tastes  and  capacities  to  be  studied. 

(4)  Amusements  to  be  utilized  as  means  of  instruction. 

(5)  Progress  to  be  slow  and  thorough. 

(6)  No  corporal  punishment. 

(7)  Instruction  to  include  writing  (tracing  copies  cut  in 

wood  or  wax),  reading,  moral  instruction,  learning 
by  heart. 

(8)  Methods  to  be  attractive  rather  than  compulsory. 

b.  Secondary  education. 

(T)  Public  school  preferable  to  private  both  for  moral 
training  and  for  excellence  of  instruction. 

(2)  Instruction  to  include  the  art  of  speaking  and  writ- 

ing, the  practice  of  critical  judgment,  music, 
astronomy,  philosophy,  grammar,  literature  (Greek 
before  Latin),  geometry. 

(3)  Eloquence  and  forceful  speaking  depend  upon  broad 


42  Outlines  of  the  History  of  Education 

knowledge  and  high  character  more  than  upon 
fluency  of  speech  and  oratorical  formulae. 
c.  Higher  education. 

(1)  Teacher  should  be  chosen  for  moral  character  and 

ability. 

(2)  Imitation  should  be  encouraged. 

(3)  Teachers  and  pupils  should  have  mutual  regard. 

(4)  Allowance  should  be  made  for  pupil's  age  and  ability. 

(5)  Natural  talents  to  be  developed. 

(6)  Oratorical  education  closely  connected  with  general 

interests  of  humanity. 

(7)  A  great  orator  must  be  a  good  man. 

(8)  Instruction  to   include  rhetoric,  literature,   philos- 

ophy, dialectic,  ethics,  physics,  and  mathematics. 

(9)  Much  exercise  in  public  speaking  and  disputation  is 

desirable. 

Decline  of  Roman  Education  (200-476  A.D.) 

(Graves :  Hist.  Educ.,  267-270 ;  Laurie :  Pre-Chr.  Educ.,  389- 
411,  Rise  &•  Early  Const,  of  Univs.,  ch.  i ;  Monroe:  Source- 
Bk.,  371-420,  Text-Bk.,  208-218,  Brief  Course,  96-99.) 

i .  Decadence  of  Roman  society. 

a.  Extension  of  the  privileges  of  Roman  citizenship  and  its 

consequent  deterioration. 

b.  Causes:    despotism,  corruption,  taxation,  extravagant 

aristocracy,  immorality. 

c.  Education  remained  institutionally  the  same,  but  was 

not  a  practical  training  for  the  whole  people  but  an 
adornment  for  the  upper  class  only. 

d.  Schools  multiplied  —  State  support  more  widely  granted 

—  teachers  better  paid  and  more  highly  esteemed. 


Education  in  Greece  and  Rome  43 

e.  Formal  pedantic  culture  —  superficial  erudition  —  os- 
tentation. 

/.   Study  of  philosophy  given  up. 

g.  The  practical  merits  of  Roman  education  and  the  liberal- 
izing tendencies  received  from  Greek  influence  entirely 
disappeared. 


EDUCATION  DURING   THE   MIDDLE   AGES 
EARLY  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  (TO  ABOUT  THE  6ra  CENTURY) 

(Barnard  :  Journ.  of  Educ.,  v.  24,  337-370,  525-544  ;  Com- 
payre:  Hist.  Fed.,  61-67;  Davidson:  Hist.  Educ.,  117-132; 
Educ.  of  Gk.  People,  ch.  9,  Aristotle  6*  tlie  Anc.  Educ.  Ideals, 
231-235;  Graves:  Hist.  Educ.,  272-298;  Hailman:  Hist. 
Fed.,  52-62;  Kemp:  Hist.  Educ.,  97-108  ;  Laurie:  Pre-Chr. 
Educ.,  389-411,  Rise  &  Early  Const,  of  Univs.,  7-38,  52-53; 
Monroe:  Text-Bk.,  221-243,  Brief  Course,  101-110;  Painter: 
Hist.  Educ.,  ist  ed.,  80-93,  2d  ed.,  102-118,  Ped.  Essays,  143- 
154;  Robinson:  Readings  in  European  Hist.,  14-35  >  Seeley: 
Hist.  Educ.,  89-115;  Williams:  Hist.  Med.  Educ.,  17-24, 


Note:  The  educational  problem  at  the  beginning  of  the 
Christian  Era  was  the  promotion  of  the  welfare  of  society 
through  the  development  of  the  individual. 

Contributions  to    Individualism   before   the  Introduction  of 

Christianity 

1.  By  the  Jews. 

a.  Lofty  conception  of  religion  and  morality. 

b.  Righteousness  the  mark  of  civic  culture. 

c.  Moral  discipline  and  responsibility. 

2.  By  the  Greeks. 

a.  Advanced  intellectual  and  aesthetic  ideals. 

44 


Education  during  the  Middle  Ages  45 

b.  "  Well-being  "  and  "  well-doing  "  their  highest  concep- 

tion of  individual  worth. 

c.  Perfection  of  the  rational  nature  the  source  of  happiness. 
3.  By  the  Romans. 

a.  Practical  training  for  functions  of  life. 

b.  Reverence  for  law,  duty,  and  individual's  rights. 

c.  With  the  Stoics,  virtue  gained  through  the  development 

of  the  reason. 

Failure  of  All  These  Nations  to  reach  Solution  of  the  Prob- 
lem, because 

1 .  Advantages  of  education  were  not  open  to  entire  population. 

2.  In  each  case  all  other  peoples  were  regarded  as  inferior. 

3.  Slavery  was  sanctioned. 

4.  Women  though  kindly  treated  were  still  subordinate  to  men. 

5.  Infanticide  and  exposure  of  children  were  not  given  up. 

6.  Religion  had  no  effective  influence  on  morality. 

The  Larger  Ideals  of  Christianity 

1 .  The  Founder,  Jesus  of  Nazareth. 

2.  His  mission. 

a.  The  unity  of  the  race. 

b.  The  moral  and  spiritual  development  of  the  individual. 

c.  The  recognition  by  man  of  the  will  of  God. 

3.  His  doctrines  that  effected  education. 

a.  Emphasis  on  moral  and  spiritual  nature  of  man. 

b.  Fatherhood  of  God  and  brotherhood  of  man. 

(1)  Hence  education  should  be  universal. 

(2)  Class  distinctions  are  eliminated. 

c.  Woman  the  equal  of  man. 

d.  Children  the  gift  of  God. 


46  Outlines  of  the  History  of  Education 

e.  Recognition  of  personality. 
/.   Universal  individualism. 

Pagan  Conditions  that  needed  Reform 

1.  Social. 

a.  Moneyed  aristocracy. 

b.  Corrupt  civic  and  governmental  methods. 

c.  Loose  family  and  social  morals. 

2.  Religious. 

a.  Formal  worship. 

b.  Immoral  and  wanton  ceremonial. 

c.  Skepticism. 

3.  Philosophical  and  educational. 

a.  Superficial  and  unethical  ideals. 

b.  Ostentation. 

c.  Class  privileges. 

Aim  of  the  Early  Christian  Schools 

1.  Moral  more  than  intellectual. 

a.  Hence  enabled  to  reach  the  masses. 

2.  "  Other-worldly." 

a.  Mundane  pleasures  and  satisfactions  sacrificed  for  spirit- 
ual development. 

Blinds  of  Christian  Schools  and  their  Purposes 

1.  Catechumenal. 

a.  For  converts  to  Christianity. 

b.  Instruction  in  moral  and  religious  teachings,  reading, 

writing  and  memorizing  of  the  Scriptures,  psalmody. 

c.  To  qualify  for  membership  in  the  Christian  church. 

2.  Catechetical. 

a.  For  Christian  teachers  and  leaders. 


Education  during  the  Middle  Ages  47 

b.  Instruction  in  theological  doctrine,  also  pagan  philos- 

ophy, literature,  and  science. 

c.  To  defend  the  faith,  to  combat  heresies,  and  to  formulate 

Christian  doctrine. 
3.  Cathedral  or  episcopal. 

a.  For  the  training  of  the  clergy. 

b.  Instruction  in  doctrine,  ritual,  the  seven  liberal  arts, 

singing  and  the  duties  of  public  religious  service. 

Relations  of  Christianity  to  Graeco-Roman  Culture 

1.  Influence  of  Greek  thought. 

a.  Tendency  to  amalgamate  through  likeness  of  aim :  viz. 

to  seek  truth. 

b.  Spread  of  heresies. 

c.  Dialectic  methods  of  teaching. 

2.  Influence  of  Roman  thought. 

a.  Formulation  of  doctrine. 

b.  Organization  of  the  church. 

3.  Opposition  to  "  worldly  "  ideal  of  pagan  education. 

a.  Secular  literature  not  approved  by  the  church. 

b.  Much  of  the  philosophy  not  consistent  with  ethical  mis- 

sion of  Christianity. 

4.  Though  rendered  more  formal  and  less  spiritual,  Christian- 

ity owed  its  preservation  to  this  pagan  influence  of 
system  and  organization. 


(Davidson:  Aristotle  &•  the  Anc.  Educ.  Ideals,  239-247; 
Graves :  Hist.  Educ.,  294-296  ;  Green  :  Hist,  of  Eng.  People, 
50-52;  Kemp:  Hist.  Educ.,  109-121;  Laurie:  Rise  &  Early 
Const,  of  Univs.,  54-74;  Monroe:  Text-Bk.,  243-274,  Brief 


48  Outlines  of  the  History  of  Education 

Course,  110-124;  Painter:  Hist.  Educ.,  ist  ed.,  99-104,  ui- 
112,  2ded.,  118-122  ;  Seeley :  Hist.  Educ.,  116-120;  Williams, 
Hist.  Med.  Educ.,  56-59.) 


Its  Origin  and  Nature 

1.  Asceticism. 

a.  Belief  in  the  necessity  of  retirement,  contemplation, 
prayer,  and  discipline  to  the  attainment  of  ideal  spirit- 
ual life. 

2.  In  other  religions. 

a.  Among  the  Hebrews. 

b.  In  the  oriental  nations. 

3.  In  Christian  church,  due  to 

a.  Belief  in  second  coming  of  Christ. 

b.  Oppression  and  corruption  of  Roman  Empire. 

4.  Distinction  between  the  ideals  of  the  East  and  the  West. 

a.  Oriental  asceticism  centered  in  contemplation. 

b.  Occidental  asceticism  added  the  element  of  work  to  its 

ideal. 

Ideals  and  Scope  of  Monastic  Life  and  Education 

1.  Vows  of  chastity,  poverty,  and  obedience. 

a.  Renunciation  of  family  life. 

b.  Advancement  of  church  rather  than  material  welfare. 

c.  Recognition  of  authority  of  God  rather  than  that  of  the 

State. 

2.  Discipline  of  physical  nature  to  develop  moral  and  spiritual 

perfection. 

3.  Monastic  rules. 

a.  Prayer,  religious  service,  discipline,  work,  study,  teach- 
ing. 


Education  during  the  Middle  Ages  49 

Schools. 

a.  For  instruction  of  monks  and  those  who  intended  to  enter 

the  monastic  order  (oblati  or  interni). 

b.  For  promotion  of  study  of  religious  writings. 

c.  For  copying  of  books. 

d.  For  instruction  of  others  who  desired  only  the  advan- 

tages of  education  (externi}. 
Social  importance. 

a.  Moral,  religious,  and  intellectual  centers. 

b.  Supplied  protection  and  assistance  to  people. 

c.  Encouraged  development  of  the  arts  and  sciences. 

d.  Preserved  and  transmitted  learning. 

Monastic  Schools 
Organization  and  content. 

a.  Primary :  reading,  writing,  Latin  psalter,  singing,  church 

service,  elementary  arithmetic. 

b.  Secondary  and  higher :    trivium  and  quadrivium,  com- 

prising the  Seven  Liberal  Arts. 

(1)  Trivium :  grammar,  rhetoric,  and  dialectic  or  logic. 

(2)  Quadrivium :  arithmetic,  geometry,  astronomy,  and 

music  (dialectic  also  continued  with  these  studies) . 

(3)  Theology  added  to  course  later. 
Methods. 

a.  Memorizing  and  imitation. 

b.  Use  of  wax  tablets  and  stylus. 

c.  Question  and  answer  method. 

d.  Dictation. 
Education  of  women. 

a.  Convents  for  women  offered  considerable  advantages  in 
education,  although  much  less  extensive  than 
those  in  the  monasteries. 


$0  Outlines  of  the  History  of  Education 

Other  Educational  Activities  of  the  Monasteries 

1.  Copying  of  manuscripts  (scriptorium). 

2.  Collecting  and  preserving  of  books :  libraries. 

3.  Production  of  literary  works :    chronicles,  commentaries, 

biographies  of  religious  men  and  women,  educational 
treatises. 

4.  Exposition  of  the  seven  liberal  arts. 

a.  Martianus  Capella :  De  Nuptiis  Philologiae  et  Mercurii, 

textbook  and  commentary  of  all  learning. 

b.  Boethius :    various  books  on  Greek  philosophy,  logic, 

ethics,  music,  and  mathematics. 

c.  Cassiodorus:    educational   treatises   and  textbooks  on 

Latin  culture. 

d.  Isidore   de   Seville :     Etymologies,   an   encyclopedia   of 

knowledge  in  twenty  books. 

e.  Aldhelm:   books  on  arithmetic,  astrology,  history,  reli- 

gion, and  Latin  prosody. 

/.  Bede  (the  Venerable) :  commentaries  on  the  Holy  Scrip- 
tures, textbooks  on  grammar,  history,  and  chronology, 
a  history  of  the  church  and  one  of  the  English  people. 

Monasteries  influential  through  their  Educational  Activities 

1 .  Fulda  and  Hirschau  in  Germany. 

2.  Mount  Cassino  in  Italy. 

3.  Cluny,  Bee,  and  Tours  in  France. 

4.  St.  Gall  in  Switzerland. 

5.  Glastonbury,  Malmesbury,  and  Canterbury  in  England. 

6.  Salzburg  in  Austria. 

7.  lona  in  Scotland. 

8.  Armagh  in  Ireland. 


Education  during  the  Middle  Ages  51 

CHARLEMAGNE  AND  THE  EDUCATION  OF  THE  PALATINE  SCHOOL 

(771-814) 

(Compayre:  Hist.  Fed.,  71-73  ;  Davidson:  Hist.  Educ.,  151- 
158;  Guizot:  Hist.  Civ.,  v.  2,  art.  on  Charlemagne  and 
Alcuin;  Kemp:  Hist.  Educ.,  122-124;  Laurie:  Rise  of  Univs., 
43-55,  67-72 ;  Monroe :  Text-Bk.,  274-279,  Brief  Course, 
125-128;  Painter:  Hist.  Educ.,  ist  ed.,  104-106,  2d  ed.,  122- 
125,  Fed.  Essays,  155-168;  Seeley:  Hist.  Educ.,  125-131; 
West:  Alcuin  &•  the  Rise  of  the  Chr.  Sch.;  Williams:  Hist. 
Med.  Educ.,  62-90.) 

The  Importance  and  Scope  of  his  Work 

1.  Political. 

a.  Emperor  of  Rome. 

b.  Ruler  of  France,  Germany,  Austria,  Italy,  and  parts  of 

England. 

2.  Social. 

a.  Raised  the  intellectual  level  of  his  people. 

b.  Advanced    the   work   and   influence   of   the   Christian 

church. 

3.  Educational. 

a.  Founded  schools,  for  which  he  secured  best  qualified 

teachers,  even  from  Rome  and  England. 

b.  Encouraged  the  monasteries  to  establish  schools. 

c.  Urged  better  education  for  the  clergy. 

d.  Favored  universal,  compulsory  education. 

e.  Promoted  the  development  of  the  German  language. 

/.   Became  himself  a  student  of  Latin,  Greek,  music,  and 
science. 


52  Outlines  of  the  History  of  Education 

His  Efforts  for  Educational  Reform 

1.  Invited  Alcuin  from  York,  England,  to  revive  interest  in 

learning. 

2.  Through  Alcuin  he  established  the  Palatine  School  at  the 

court. 

3.  Issued  three  capitularies  (787,  789,  and  802)  to  monks  and 

clergy,  commanding  them  to  study  and  to  maintain 
schools  in  all  the  monasteries  and  churches. 

a.  Boys  to  be  taught  the  psalms,  musical  notation,  singing, 

arithmetic,  grammar. 

b.  Adults  to  be  instructed  in  the  liberal  arts  and  the  Holy 

Scriptures. 

c.  Capitulary  of  802  was  general  proclamation  providing 

instruction  for  the  laity  as  well  as  the  clergy. 

4.  Brought  from  Rome  excellent  teachers  of  music,  grammar, 

and  arithmetic, 

Work  of  the  Palatine  School 

1.  Aim:  to  be  model  school. 

2.  Pupils  :  sons  and  daughters  of  the  nobles. 

3.  Content:   elementary  and  secondary,  including  the  seven 

liberal  arts,  also  Greek  and  natural  history. 

4.  Method :  chiefly  catechetical  or  "  question  and  answer." 

5.  Textbooks :  written  by  Alcuin  on  grammar,  rhetoric,  dia- 

lectic, arithmetic,  and  "  the  seven  liberal  arts." 

Other  Educational  Work  that  grew  out  of  this  Movement 

i.  Alcuin  (735-804). 

0.  Became  abbot  of  the  monastery  of  Tours. 
b.  His  school  here  became  the  center  of  learning  and  of 
influence  in  the  church. 


Education  during  the  Middle  Ages  53 

c.  Built  up  an  important  library. 

2.  Rabanus  Maurus  (776-856). 

a.  Pupil  of  Alcuin. 

b.  Became  abbot  of  Fulda,  Germany. 

c.  Was  student  and  teacher  of  Greek. 

d.  Wrote  de  Compute,  based  on  the  works  of  Boethius  and 

Bede ;  also  de  Clericorum  Institutione  (the  education 
of  the  clergy) ;  and  compiled  an  encyclopedia  similar 
to  that  of  Isidore  of  Seville. 

3.  Joannes  Scotus  Erigena  (810-875). 

a.  Successor  to  Alcuin  in  Palatine  School. 

b.  Had  broad  knowledge  of  Greek  language  and  ancient 

learning. 

c.  Was  the  first  to  apply  dialectics  to  theology,  thus  being 

the  forerunner  of  scholasticism. 

Effect  of  this  Revival 

1.  Monastic,  episcopal,  and  rural  or  parish  schools  were  founded 

in  considerable  numbers. 

2.  Work  and  influence  of  the  Christian  church  enhanced  by 

better  educated  clergy. 

a.  Various  church  councils  continued  to  promote  the  work 
of  education. 

3.  May  be  said  to  be  the  beginnings  of  popular  instruction  by 

State  authority. 

4.  Unified  the  Prankish  empire. 

a.  By  increase  of  use  of  the  mother  tongue. 

EDUCATIONAL  WORK  OF  KING  ALFRED  OF  ENGLAND  (871-901) 

(Besant:  The  Story  of  Alfred  the  Great;  Bowker:  Alfred  the 
Great;  Kemp:  Hist.  Educ.,  125;  Laurie:  Rise  6*  Const,  of 
Univs.,  32-39,  52-53.) 


54  Outlines  of  the  History  of  Education 

National  Reforms  of  Government  effected  by  Alfred 

1.  Creation  of  fleet  for  coast  defense. 

2.  Reorganization  of  army  and  training  in  arms. 

3.  Construction  of  fortified  camps. 

4.  Encouragement  of  exploration  and  commercial  intercourse 

with  Europe. 

His  Educational  Efforts 

1.  Established  schools,  following  example  of  Charlemagne. 

2.  Directed    compilation    of    portions    of    the    Anglo-Saxon 

Chronicle,  a  source  book  of  knowledge  of  Teutonic  con- 
quest of  England. 

3.  Codified  the  laws,  making  principle  of  morality  the  basis 

of  the  legal  system. 

4.  Imported  teachers  from  the  continent. 

5.  Wrote   treatises   and   translated   foreign  works  into   the 

English  language. 

6.  Is  said  to  have  laid  the  foundation  of  Oxford  University. 

CHIVALRY  AND  THE  EDUCATION  OF  THE  KNIGHT  (iiTH-i4TH 

CENTURIES) 

(Gautier:  Chivalry;  Kemp:  Hist.  Educ.,  132-135;  Monroe: 
Text-Bk.,  284-291,  Brief  Course,  147-150;  Painter:  Hist. 
Educ.,  ist  ed.,  107-110,  2d  ed.,  126-128;  Seeley:  Hist.  Educ., 
132-135  ;  Williams :  Hist.  Med.  Educ.,  95-104.) 

Origin  of  Chivalry 

1.  In  feudalism. 

a.  The  knight  was  the  successor  of  the  Germanic  warrior 
chieftain. 

2.  In  the  influence  of  the  Christian  church  upon  the  Northern 

barbarians. 


Education  during  the  Middle  Ages  55 

a.  Embodied  the  better  elements  of  the  warrior  character 
refined  and  ennobled. 

Character  and  Ideals  of  Chivalry 

1.  Direct  contrast  of  monasticism. 

a.    Physical  strength  and  vigor  valued  as  well  as  perfection 
of  the  moral  nature. 

2.  Social  discipline. 

a.  Major  virtues :  service,  love,  honor,  loyalty,  piety. 

b.  Minor  virtues :  courtesy,  courage,  obedience,  respect  for 

women. 

3.  Suggestive  of  modern  notions  of  a  gentleman  and  a  lady. 

Educational  Scheme 

1.  1-7  years :  in  care  of  mother. 

2.  7-14  years:   as  page  in  attendance  upon  a  knight  and  the 

ladies  of  the  court,  in  household  and  court  service  — 
learned  music,  chess,  poetry,  and  manners. 

3.  14-21  years:   as  squire  or  companion  of  a  knight  —  pur- 

sued physical  and  military  training;  hunting,  fencing, 
justing,  riding,  swimming ;  also  studied  religion,  singing, 
minstrelsy,  and  the  harp. 

4.  After  21  years :  became  knight,  through  religious  ceremony 

-  took  vows  to  defend  church,  to  speak  truth,  and  to 
respect  womankind  —  learned  French,  more  music,  po- 
etry, and  military  duties  (the  intellectual  element  in  this 
training  was,  however,  subordinate.) 

5.  Training  of  girls:    was  much  like  that  required  of  boys, 

though  not  so  broad,  and  included  reading,  singing,  play- 
ing stringed  instruments,  writing,  poetry,  religion,  French, 
often  Latin,  manners,  and  needlework,  besides  physical 
exercises. 


56  Outlines  of  the  History  of  Education 

Value  of  Chivalry 

1.  Duty  of  noble  service  was  recognized. 

2.  Gave  a  high  place  to  women. 

3.  Emphasized  unselfishness  and  courtesy. 

4.  Improved  manners  and  speech. 

5.  Recognized  obligations  to  inferiors. 

6.  Developed  the  native  languages  and  literatures. 

a.  The  German  Minnesongs. 

b.  The  songs  of  the  French  troubadours. 

c.  The  ballads  of  the  English,  Scotch,  and  Irish  minstrels. 

SCHOLASTICISM  AND  EDUCATION  (QTH-I^TH  CENTURIES) 

(Barnard :  Journ.  of  Educ.,  v.  24,  368-374 ;  Compayre  :  Hist. 
Fed.,  74-75,  Abelard  and  the  Origin  6*  Early  Hist,  of  the 
Univs.;  Davidson:  Hist.  Educ.,  159-165;  Green:  Shorter 
Hist,  of  Eng.  People;  Guizot:  Hist,  of  Civ.,  v.  3;  Hallam: 
Europe  in  the  Middle  Ages,  426-433  ;  Haureau :  Histoire  de  la 
Philosophic  Scolastique;  Kemp:  Hist.  Educ.,  126-129; 
Laurie:  Rise  of  Univs.,  chs.  3-4;  Monroe:  Text-Bk.,  292- 
313,  Brief  Course,  128-133;  Seeley:  Hist.  Educ.,  121-124; 
Williams :  Hist.  Med.  Educ.,  143-146.) 

Conditions  that  led  to  the  Development  of  Scholastic  The- 
ology 

1.  Popularity  of  the  study  of  Greek  philosophy. 
a.  Due  to  the  introduction  of  Saracen  learning. 

2.  Unrest  in  intellectual  thought. 

3.  Desire  for  a  system  of  rational  philosophy  to  explain  the 

doctrines  of  the  church. 

4.  Lack  of  secular  literature  and  of  intercourse  with  the  world. 
a.  Emphasized  by  the  crusades. 


Education  during  the  Middle  Ages  57 

Meaning  of  Scholasticism 

1.  An  endeavor  to  bring  Greek  philosophy  into  the  service  of 

theology. 

2.  The  reduction  of  religious  thought  to  logical  form. 

3.  A  type  of  intellectual  activity. 

Aim  of  the  Schoolmen 

1.  To  strengthen  faith  by  the  development  of  the  reason. 

2.  To  train  logical  power  and  the  ability  to  dispute. 

3.  To  systematize  knowledge. 

4.  To  give  mastery  of  this  knowledge. 

Content  of  Study 

1.  Aristotle's  metaphysics,  physics,  psychology,  and  ethics. 

2.  Plato's  theory  of  ideas. 

3.  Doctrine  of  universals. 

a.  Realism:    theory  that  universal  truths  or  ideas  alone 

possess  reality  and  exist  as  archetypes  in  the  Divine 
mind. 

b.  Nominalism :  theory  that  universal  truths  are  but  names, 

and  possess  no  reality  apart  from  the  individual  facts 
or  objects  in  which  they  are  identified. 

c.  Conceptualism :    theory  that  universal  truths  possess 

reality  only  as  concepts  of  the  human  mind. 

4.  Doctrines  of  the  church. 

a.  Interpretation  of  orthodox  views  in  terms  of  philosophy. 

b.  Attempt  to  bring  faith  and  reason  into  harmonious  rela- 

tions. 

5.  Scholastic  texts. 

a.  The  Sententia  of  Peter  Lombard. 

b.  Summa  Theologies,  of  Thomas  Aquinas. 

c.  Sic  et  Non  of  Peter  Abelard. 


58  Outlines  of  the  History  of  Education 

Methods  of  the  Schoolmen 

1.  Logical  analysis  and  systematic  organization. 

a.  Ultralogical  rather  than  psychological. 

b.  Division  of  truth  into  heads,  subheads,  etc. 

e.  Consideration  of  several  interpretations  and  their  par- 
ticular merits,  before  forming  the  conclusion. 

2.  Following  the  form  of  questions  sometimes  instead  of  propo- 

sitions. 

3.  No  adaptation  to  mental  development. 

4.  Dialectic  method  of  a  very  formal  kind. 

Noted  Schoolmen 

1.  Scotus  Erigena :  forerunner. 

2.  Anselm :  father  of  scholasticism  in  the  West. 

3.  Peter  Lombard :  author  of  scientific  system  of  theology. 

4.  Peter  Abelard :  founder  of  conceptualism. 

5.  Albertus  Magnus :    first  stated  the  philosophy  of  free  in- 

quiry in  systematic  form. 

6.  Thomas  Aquinas :   applied  the  deductive  method  of  Aris- 

totle to  theology. 

7.  William  of  Occam  :  opposed  realism  and  held  fast  to  faith. 

8.  William  of  Champeaux :  eminent  realist. 

Value  of  Scholasticism 

1 .  Reached  only  formal  truths. 

a.  Dealt  with  abstract  material. 

2.  Argument  more  regarded  than  the  validity  of  the  conclusion. 

3.  Knowledge  was  given  philosophic  form. 

4.  Problems  had  theological  bearing. 

a.  Hence  raised  the  intellectual  level  of  the  clergy. 


Education  during  the  Middle  Ages  59 

5.  Awakened  the  minds  of  men. 

6.  Demanded  keen  intellectual  development. 

7.  Prepared  the  way  for  the  universities  and  the  Renaissance. 

GUILD  AND  BURGHER  SCHOOLS  (IITH-ISTH  CENTURIES) 

(Kemp:  Hist.  Educ.,  136-137 ;  Monroe:  Text-Bk.,  338-339, 
Brief  Course,  156-157;  Painter:  Hist.  Educ.,  ist  ed.,  iio-iu, 
2d  ed.,  128-129;  U.  S.  Com'r  Educ.  Kept.,  1897-1898,  v.  i, 
18-26  ;  Williams :  Hist.  Med.  Educ.,  104-108.) 

Causes  leading  to  their  Establishment 

1.  Rapid  growth  of  cities. 

2.  Increasing  importance  of  trading  and  artisan  classes. 

3.  Organization  of  trades  and  other  guilds. 

/ 
Character  of  the  Schools 

1.  Guild  schools. 

a.  Elementary  and  grammar  grades,  with  instruction  in 

reading,  writing,  arithmetic,  Latin,  and"1  often  the 
vernacular  language,  besides  rudimentary  history, 
geography,  and  natural  science. 

b.  Usually  conducted  by  members  of  the  clergy  as  teachers. 

c.  Supported  by  merchant  or  trade  guilds. 

2.  Burgher  schools. 

a.  Instruction  similar  to  above  with  special  reference  to  the 

economic  interests  and  demands  of  the  cities. 

b.  Controlled  largely  by  secular  authorities. 

c.  Lay  teachers  more  and  more  numerous. 

3.  Attitude  of  Church  and  State. 

a.  Contended  long  for  control  of  these  schools. 

b.  Civil  authorities  eventually  won. 


60  Outlines  of  the  History  of  Education 

4.  Teachers. 

a.  Poorly  paid. 

b.  Often  itinerant. 

c.  Meager  qualifications. 

d.  No  suitable  place  provided  for  school. 


Influence  of  these  Schools 

1.  Met  the  demand  for  a  practical  education  suited  to  the 

needs  of  special  classes. 

2.  May  have  been  the  foundations  of  the  modern  public  ele- 

mentary school. 

SARACEN  LEARNING  (9x11-1 313:  CENXURIES) 

(Ball:  Hist.  Math.,  140-156;  Cajori :  Hist.  Math.,  84-124, 
131-138;  Davidson:  Hist.  Educ.,  133-150;  Kemp:  Hist. 
Educ.,  130-132;  Laurie:  Rise  of  Univs.,  88-90;  Monroe: 
Text-Bk.,  331-334,  Brief  Course,  154-155;  Painter:  Hist. 
Educ.,  ist  ed.,  114,  2d  ed.,  132-133  ;  Seeley :  Hist.  Educ.,  143- 
147;  Williams:  Hist.  Med.  Educ.,  110-112.) 

Early  Intellectual  Progress  of  the  Saracens 

1.  Spread  by  force  of  Mohammedan  arms  over  large  portions 

of  Asia,  Africa,  and  Europe. 

2.  Advanced  by  attention  to  learning  along  with  growth  of 

political  power. 

3.  Promoted  by  contact  with  Hindu,  Byzantine,  and  Alexan- 

drian learning. 

4.  Enhanced  by  libraries  and  translations  of  Greek  works  into 

Arabic. 


Education  during  the  Middle  Ages  61 

Extent  of  their  Learning 

1.  Mathematics:    arithmetic,  algebra,  arabic  numerals  (ob- 

tained from  India),  trigonometry,  translations  of  Greek 
mathematical  works. 

2.  Chemistry  and  physics:   discovery  of  nitric  and  sulphuric 

acids,  oxidized  mercury  and  alcohol  —  preparation  of 
caustic  alkali  —  properties  of  gases  understood  —  table 
of  specific  gravities  and  height  of  atmosphere  calculated 
—  refraction,  reflection  and  theory  of  vision  studied  — 
application  of  pendulum  to  clocks  and  calculation  of 
time. 

3.  Astronomy:   determination  of  a  degree  of  the  earth's  sur- 

face, of  the  obliquity  of  the  ecliptic,  of  the  length  of  the 
year,  of  the  rate  of  progression  of  the  equinoxes  —  cor- 
rection of  Ptolemy's  astronomical  tables  —  theory  of  the 
movement  of  planets  in  ellipses  —  construction  of  "  tubes 
with  glasses  "  for  observation,  of  observation  towers,  of 
the  armillary  sphere,  of  mural  quadrants,  and  of  globes 
for  geographical  studies. 

4.  Medicine  and  surgery :   properties  of  drugs  understood  — 

operations  performed  in  general  surgery  and  obstetrics  — 
medical  books  written  and  hospitals  provided. 

Schools  of  the  Saracens 

1.  In  connection  with  every  mosque. 

2.  Usually  private  with  fees  for  tuition. 

3.  In  large  cities,  institutions  for  higher  instruction. 

4.  Included  professional  schools  of  medicine  and  surgery. 

5.  Provided  lectures  on  literature,  rhetoric,  grammar,  compo- 

sition, mathematics,  astronomy,  and  general  science. 


62  Outlines  of  the  History  of  Education 

Saracen  Influence  in  Europe 

1.  Through  the  crusades  students  of  Europe  came  into  touch 

with  the  Saracen  learning. 

2.  Their  schools  in  Spain  were  attended  by  European  youth. 

3.  Science  thus  brought  into  Christian  countries  stimulated 

intellectual  activity. 

4.  The  works  of  Aristotle,  of  Euclid,  and  of  the  Hindus  on 

philosophy,  mathematics,  and  literature  were  introduced 
into  Europe. 

THE  RISE   OF  THE  UNIVERSITIES   (i2TH-i5TH  CENTURIES) 

(Barnard :  Journ.  of  Educ.,  v.  6,  9-66,  v.  9,  49-111,  v.  22,  273- 
330,  v.  24,  745-776,  v.  27,  817-944,  v.  28,  369-448  ;  Compayre  : 
Abelard  6*  the  Origin  &•  Early  Hist,  of  Univs.;  Davidson: 
Hist.  Educ.,  166-174;  Hallam:  Europe  in  the  Middle  Ages, 
420-426 ;  Kemp :  Hist.  Educ.,  138-145 ;  Laurie :  Rise  of 
Univs.,  91-293;  Monroe:  Text-Bk.,  313-327,  Brief  Course, 
138-147;  Painter:  Hist.  Educ.,  ist  ed.,  115-117,  2d  ed.,  133- 
138 ;  Paulsen :  Germ.  Univs.,  16-57  >  Robinson :  Europ. 
Hist.,  446-450;  Seeley:  Hist.  Educ.,  139-142;  Williams: 
Hist.  Med.  Educ.,  131-161.) 

Causes  of  the  Rise  of  Universities 

1 .  Newly  awakened  scientific  spirit. 

2.  Increase  of  knowledge. 

3.  Development  of  secular  interests :   commercial,  social,  and 

governmental. 

4.  Effect  of  the  intellectual  movements  of  the  preceding  cen- 

turies, viz. :  church  and  monastic  schools,  scholasticism, 
chivalric  education,  burgher  schools  and  organization  of 
municipalities,  the  crusades,  and  the  stimulation  of  Sara- 
cen learning. 


Education  during  the  Middle  Ages  63 

Character  of  the  Universities 

1.  Free  association  of  learned  men  and  aspiring  youths. 

2.  Special  schools  for  advanced  professional  study. 

3.  Independent  of  Church  and  State. 

Organization  and  Special  Features  of  the  Universities 

1.  Democratic  in  government. 

2.  Student  body  divided  into  "  nations." 

a.  Charters  and  privileges  granted  separately  or  to  group 

organizations. 

b.  In  southern  universities,  these  organizations  were  con- 

trolled by  the  students;   in  northern  universities,  by 
the  masters. 

3.  Rector,  the  official  head  of  the  university. 

a.  Council,  elected  by  nations,  acted  with  rector  as  govern- 
ing body. 

4.  Faculties,  a  development  later  than  the  nations. 

a.  Applied  first  to  the  department  of  study,  then  to  the 
body  of  men  in  control  of  such  department. 

5.  Special  privileges. 

a.  Exemption  from  military  service  and  taxation. 

b.  Internal  jurisdiction. 

c.  Granting  of  degrees  which  carried  with  them  a  license 

to  teach. 

Typical  Universities 

i.  Salerno  (about  1080). 

a.  Started  under  monastic  influence. 

b.  First  a  special  school  of  medicine. 

c.  Constantine,  of  Carthage,  great  lecturer. 

d.  United  later  with  schools  of  Naples. 


64  Outlines  of  the  History  of  Education 

2.  Bologna  (about  1158). 

a.  Grew  out  of  interest  in  litigation. 

b.  Union  of  schools  of  law  in  northern  Italy. 

c.  Irnerius,  famous  teacher  of  law. 

d.  Instruction  in  civil  law,  then  canon  law,  and  later  theol- 

ogy and  arts. 

e.  Large  number  of  students. 

3.  Paris  (about  1 1 80). 

a.  Outgrowth  of  cathedral  school. 

b.  Instruction  in  philosophy  and  theology;    later  canon 

law,  civil  law,  and  medicine. 

c.  Great  teachers  :  Peter  Abelard,  Peter  Lombard,  William 

of  Champeaux. 

d.  Great  popularity  and  influence. 

Teachers  and  Students 

1.  Teachers:  lecturers  called  doctors  or  masters. 

a.  In  private  homes  or  rented  houses. 

b.  Received  fees  from  students. 

2.  Students. 

a.  Many  nationalities  —  often  mere  boys. 

b.  Students'  guilds  —  special  dress  —  riotous  living. 

c.  Many  itinerants. 

3.  Discipline  lax. 

a.  Frequent  conflicts  with  town  authorities. 

Influence  of  the  Early  Universities 

1.  Stood  for  freedom  of  intellectual  thought  and  of  speech. 

2.  Were  a  force  in  political  affairs  and  in  church  controversies. 

3.  Trained  leaders. 

4.  Spread  through  interchange  of  students. 


EDUCATION    DURING  THE  PERIOD   OF  THE 
RENAISSANCE 

EDUCATION  DURING  THE  PERIOD  OF  THE  RENAISSANCE 
(i4TH-i6TH  CENTURIES) 

(Barnard  :  Journ.  of  Educ.,  v.  4,  622-628,  714-728,  v.  5,  65-78, 
v.  7,  413-460;  Browning:  Educ.  Theories,  44-60;  Cajori : 
Hist.  Math.,  138-139 ;  Compayre  :  Hist.  Fed.,  83-111 ;  David- 
son :  Hist.  Educ.,  175-189 ;  Encyclopedia  Brit.,  art.  on  Renais- 
sance ;  Guizot :  Hist.  Civ.,  v.  i,chs.  11-12  ;  Kemp :  Hist.  Educ., 
149-161;  Monroe:  Text-Bk.,  351-400,  Brief  Course,  160- 
188;  Painter:  Hist.  Educ.,  ist  ed.,  120-135,  2d  ed.,  140-153; 
Quick:  Educ.  Refs.,  1-26;  Russell:  Germ.  Higher  Schs.,  17- 
26  ;  Seebohm  :  Era  of  Prot.  Rev.,  5-14  ;  Seeley :  Hist.  Educ., 
148-163  ;  U.  S.  Com'r  Educ.  Rept.,  1902,  v.  i,  481-508,  1905, 
v.  i,  86-884;  Williams:  Hist.  Mod.  Educ.,  13-14,  20-48, 
56-65.) 

Introduction:  the  General  Intellectual  Renaissance 

i.  Conditions  preceding  and  contemporary  with  the  Renais- 
sance which  contributed  to  intellectual  prog- 
ress. 

a.  Crusades  :  interchange  and  introduction  of  ideas. 

b.  Change  in  ideals  of  government. 

(1)  Feudal  system  replaced  by  growth  of  feeling  of  the 

responsibility  of  government  for  governed. 

(2)  More  stability  of  society  and  government,  providing 

more  security  of  person  and  property. 

*  65 


66  Outlines  of  the  History  of  Education 

c.  Discoveries  and  explorations. 

(1)  Marco  Polo's  explorations  in  the  orient. 

(2)  Columbus's  discovery  of  America. 

(3)  Magellan's  circumnavigation  of  the  globe. 

d.  Inventions. 

(1)  Gunpowder :   increasing  the  value  of  generalship  in 

war  over  brute  force. 

(2)  Printing. 

(a)  Multiplied  books. 

(&)  Changed  methods  of  teaching  by  supplanting 

dictation. 
(c)  Developed  schools  and  universities. 

(3)  Telescope  :  gave  knowledge  of  other  worlds. 

(4)  Mariner's  compass :  doubled  the  area  of  the  known 

world. 

e.  Development  of  modern  languages  and  literatures,  thus 

unifying  and  distinguishing  the  modern  na- 
tions. 
/.   Revolt  against  authority. 

(1)  Reason  became  the  guide  to  truth. 

(2)  Scientific  spirit  of  observation  and  inductive  experi- 

ment instead  of   deduction  from  unreasoned 
accepted  truths. 

(3)  Demand  for  personal  religious  freedom. 

(4)  Changed  educational  ideal  to  extreme  individualism. 
2.  The  new  aim  in  the  education  of  the  fourteenth  century. 

a.  To  develop  individuality. 

b.  To  attain  to  self-culture. 

c.  To  provide  for  the  interests  of  mankind  as  contrasted 

with  those  of  the  State  or  of  society. 

d.  To  permit  freedom  of  thought,  of  development,  of  belief, 

and  of  method. 


Education  during  the  Period  of  the  Renaissance     67 

The  Revival  of  Letters  or  the  Educational  Renaissance 

.  Its  general  significance. 

a.  Causes. 

(1)  Desire  to  provide  for  the  new  ideal  in  education. 

(2)  Recognition  of   the  failure  of   medieval  culture  to 

meet  the  needs. 

(3)  Introduction  of  Greek  texts  and  coming  of  Greek 

teachers  from  Constantinople  after  its  capture 
by  the  Turks  in  1453. 

(4)  Corresponding  new  appreciation  of  Latin  literature. 

b.  Purpose. 

(1)  Revival  of  the  Greek  conception  of  "  freedom  "  as 

the  ideal  of  liberal  education. 

(2)  Endeavor  to  learn  how  the  ancients  provided  for  the 

development  of  the  individual. 

c.  Immediate  effects. 

(1)  Wide  study  of  Greek  and  Latin  languages  and  litera- 

tures. 

(2)  Search  for  classical  manuscripts  and  collection  and 

multiplication  of  the  same. 

(3)  Increased  attention  to  study  and  appreciation  of  the 

fine  arts  and  of  natural  science. 

(4)  New  conceptions  of  man's  thoughts,  feelings,  aspira- 

tions, and  possibilities  as  portrayed  by  classi- 
cal literature. 
.  The  educational  Renaissance  in  Italy. 

a.  Aim :   The  free  development  and  liberal  culture  of  the 

individual  in  the  spirit  of  the  ancients  and  as 
disclosed  by  their  writings. 

b.  Character. 

(i)  Study  of  Greek  and  Latin  classics. 


68  Outlines  of  the  History  of  Education 

(2)  Self -development  as  opposed  to  the  asceticism  and 

self-abnegation  of  the  Middle  Ages. 

(3)  Included    physical,   moral,   and    aesthetic   develop- 

ment as  well  as  literary,  social,  and  religious. 

(4)  Emphasized  expression,  not  only  in  language  but 

also  in  conduct,  art,  and  efficient  participation 
in  life. 

(5)  Limited  in  its  enjoyment,  owing  to  its  cost. 
c.  Leaders  (see  below) . 

(i)  Dante,  Petrarch,  Boccaccio,  Barzizza,  Chrysoloras, 

da  Feltre. 
3.  The  educational  Renaissance  in  Northern  Europe. 

a.  Aim:   to  remove  common  ignorance,  not  by  individual 

development  but  by  social  and  religious  edu- 
cation. 

b.  Character. 

(1)  Elementary  and  religious  instruction  for  the  young. 

(2)  Study  of  Greek  and  Hebrew  to  understand  the  Scrip- 

tures in  the  original. 

(3)  Use  of  the  mother  tongue  in  instruction,  the  Scrip- 

tures being  translated  for  that  purpose. 

(4)  Gradual  merging  later  with  the  Reformation  move- 

ment. 

c.  Leaders. 

(i)  Brethren  of  the  Common  Life  (Hieronymians) . 

(a)  A  religious  order  founded  by  Gerhard  Groot  at 
Deventer,  Holland  —  Thomas  a  Kempis,  rep- 
resentative of  the  ascetic  piety  of  the  order, 
Erasmus,  of  the  broad  and  liberal  spirit. 

(&)  Their  work:  spread  Christianity,  laid  founda- 
tion of  Christian  popular  education,  supplied 
teachers. 


Education  during  the  Period  of  the  Renaissance     69 

(2)  Wessel,  Agricola,  Reuchlin,  Hegius,  Erasmus,  As- 
cham,  Colet,  Sturm,  Wimfeling. 

The  Narrow  Humanistic  Education 

1.  Meaning. 

a.  Learning,  which  consisted  of  a  knowledge  of  the  Greek 

and  Latin  literatures,  was  called  humanitas,  i.e.  "  the 
pursuits  and  the  activities  proper  to  man." 

b.  Hence,  the  term  humanities  came  to  indicate  the  languages 

and  literatures  of  the  ancients,  and  humanistic  educa- 
tion was  narrowed  to  linguistic  training. 

2.  Character. 

a.  Latin  and  Greek  were  chiefly  studied,  even  before  the 

mother  tongue. 

b.  The  physical,  social,  aesthetic  and   scientific   elements 

were  eliminated,  and  history  and  mathematics  were 
neglected. 

3.  Method. 

a.  Formal  —  grammatical  —  memory  study  —  exacting  ex- 

ercise of  the  power  of  discrimination. 

b.  Harsh  discipline. 

4.  The  Ciceronians,  a  type  of  extreme  humanism. 

a.  Those  who  made  perfect  Latin  style,  according  to  Cicero, 
the  chief  aim  of  education. 

Representative  Renaissance  Educators 

In  Italy 

i.  Dante  (1265-1321). 

(Monroe  :  Text-Bk.  in  Hist.  Educ., 327, 341-347, 357, Brief 
Course,  163  ;  Painter  :  Hist.  Educ.,  ist  ed.,  120,  2d  ed., 
140;  Seeley:  Hist.  Educ.,  151,  155-156.) 


70  Outlines  of  the  History  of  Education 

a.  The  forerunner. 

b.  Author  of  the  Divine  Comedy  and  the  Inferno. 

2.  Petrarch  (1304-1374). 

(Hallam :  Europe  in  the  Middle  Ages,  v.  2,  630-634 ; 
Jebb :  Humanism  in  Educ.,  1-16 ;  Monroe :  Text- 
Bk.  in  Hist.  Educ.,  327,  354,  358-360,  375,  386, 
Brief  Course,  163-164;  Painter:  Hist.  Educ.,  ist 
ed.,  120,  2d  ed.,  40;  Seeley:  Hist.  Educ.,  151- 
153,  155-156;  Symonds:  The  Renaissance  in  Italy, 
70-87;  U.  S.  Com'r  Educ.  Kept.,  1897-1898,  v.  i, 
27.) 

a.  "  The  first  modern  man." 

b.  Devoted  to  the  study  of  the  classics  and  to  the  reproduc- 

tion of   the  classical  spirit   in   literature  —  imitated 
Cicero. 

c.  Wrote  Sonnets,  Letters,  Lives  of  Ancient  Men. 

3.  Boccaccio  (1313-1375)  and  Barzizza  (1370-1431). 

(Kemp:  Hist.  Educ.,  153;  Monroe:  Text-Bk.  in  Hist. 
Educ.,  360,  375-376,  386~387>  Brief  Course,  165; 
Painter :  Hist.  Educ.,  ist  ed.,  120,  2d  ed.,  140 ;  Seeley : 
Hist.  Educ.,  151,  155,  157  ;  U.  S.  Com'r  Educ.  Kept., 
1897-1898,  v.  i,  27.) 

a.  Noted  for  the  recovery  o|  texts,  the  reproduction  of 

manuscripts,  and  the  founding  of  libraries. 

b.  The  former  wrote  the  Decameron. 

4.  Chrysoloras  of  Constantinople. 

(Kemp:   Hist.  Educ.,  153;   Monroe:  Text-Bk.  in  Hist. 

Educ.,  360-376,  Brief  Course,   165;    Painter:    Hist. 

Educ.,   ist  ed.,   121,   2d  ed.,   140;    Symonds:    The 

Renaissance  in  Italy,  108-113.) 

a.  Teacher  of  classical  Greek  in  the  university  of  Florence 


Education  during  the  Period  of  the  Renaissance     71 

Vittorino  da  Feltre  (1378-1446). 

(Compayre :  Hist.  Fed.,  78 ;  Jebb :  Humanism  in  Educ., 
16-21 ;  Monroe:  Text-Bk.  in  Hist.  Educ.,  376-377, 
Brief  Course,  1 74 ;  Symonds :  The  Renaissance  in 
Italy,  289-298  ;  Thurber :  V.  da  F.,  in  Sch.  Rev.,  v.  7, 
295-300  (1899) ;  Woodward  :  V.  da  F.  6r  Other  Hum. 
Educators,  1-92.) 

a.  Teacher  at  Padua  and  Venice. 

b.  Established  school  at  Mantua  (1428),  where  he  carried 

out  the  Greek  idea  of  a  liberal  education. 

c.  Emphasized  the  literature,  history,  and  civilization  rather 

than  the  form  of  the  classical  languages. 

In  Holland  and  Germany 

John  Wessel  (1420-1489). 

(Barnard :  Germ.  Trs.&  Educators,  72-74,  Journ.  of  Educ., 
v.  4,  714-728;  Compayre:  Hist.  Fed.,  87;  Kemp: 
Hist.  Educ.,  156;  Monroe:  Text-Bk.  in  Hist.  Educ., 
377,  Brief  Course,  175.) 

a.  Educated  at  Deventer,  Cologne,  Paris,  and  Rome. 

b.  Famous  teacher  —  knew  Greek,  Latin,  and  Hebrew. 

c.  Agricola  and  Reuchlin,  his  noted  pupils. 
Rudolph  Agricola  (1443-1485). 

(Barnard :  Germ.  Trs.&  Educators,  75-89,  Journ.  of  Educ., 
v.  4,  717-723;  Compayre:  Hist.  Fed.,  87;  Kemp: 
Hist.  Educ.,  156-157;  Monroe:  Text-Bk.  in  Hist. 
Educ.,  377,  Brief  Course,  175;  Painter:  Hist.  Educ., 
ist  ed.,  125-128,  2d  ed.,  142-146;  Russell:  Germ. 
Higher  Schs.,  20;  Seeley:  Hist.  Educ.,  153,  158.) 

a.  Studied  under  Wessel  and  Thomas  a  Kempis  at  Louvain, 

Paris,  and  in  Italy. 

b.  Taught  Latin  and  Greek  at  Heidelberg  and  Worms. 


72  Outlines  of  the  History  of  Education 

c.  Knew  also  Hebrew,  French,  and  Italian. 

d.  Had  wide  reputation  as  pioneer  in  promoting  classical 

learning  in  Germany. 

3.  John  Reuchlin  (1455-1522). 

(Barnard :  Germ.  Trs.  &  Educators,  101-112,  Journ.  ofEduc., 
v-  5>  65~?8;  Kemp:  Hist.  Educ.,  157-158;  Monroe: 
Text-Bk.  in  Hist.  Educ.,  377,  Brief  Course,  175; 
Painter :  Hist.  Educ.,  ist  ed.,  128-131,  2d  ed.,  146-148 ; 
Russell:  Germ.  Higher  Schs.,  20-23;  Seeley:  Hist. 
Educ.,  159-160;  U.  S.  Com'r  Educ.  Rept.,  1897-1898, 
v.  i,  28.) 

a.  Studied  at  Paris,  Basle,  and  in  Italy  —  pupil  of  Wessel. 

b.  Taught  Latin,  Greek,  Hebrew,  and  philosophy  at  Ingol- 

stadt  and  Tubingen. 

c.  Wrote  Hebrew  grammar  (1506). 

d.  Introduced  classical  works  into  Germany. 

4.  Alexander  Hegius  (1420-1498). 

(Barnard :  Germ.  Trs.  6*  Educators,  81-84,  Journ.  of  Educ., 
v.  4,  723-726  ;  Monroe :  Text-Bk.  in  Hist.  Educ.,  377, 
Brief  Course,  175  ;  Payne :  Letts,  on  Hist.  Educ.,  v.  2, 
37  ;  Russell,  Germ.  Higher  Schs.,  20,  23.) 

a.  Educated  at  De venter  —  great  student  of  the  classics, 

particularly  Greek,  and  of  the  Bible. 

b.  For  30  years  was  master  of  the  gymnasium  at  Deventer. 

c.  Had  many  noted  pupils. 

5.  Jacob  Wimfeling  (1450-1528). 

(Monroe :  Text-Bk.  in  Hist.  Educ.,  363, 377-378,  390,  409, 
Brief  Course,  176;  Russell:  Germ.  Higher  Schs.,  20- 

23-) 

a.  Educated  at  Deventer. 

b.  Lecturer  and  rector  at  Heidelberg,  the  center  of  human- 

istic learning  for  Western  Germany. 


Education  during  the  Period  of  the  Renaissance     73 

c.  Wrote  texts  and  educational  treatises,   among  them: 
Guide  to  tlie  German  Youth. 

6.  Desiderius  Erasmus  (1467-1536). 

(Barnard:  Germ.  Trs.&  Educators,  87-100,  J our n.  of  Educ., 
v.  4, 729-740 ;  Compayre :  Hist.  Ped.,  85-94 ;  Davidson, 
Hist.  Educ.,  177-179;  Kemp:  Hist.  Educ.,  158-161; 
Monroe :  Text-Bk.  in  Hist.  Educ.,  362-375,  378-382, 
409,  445,  Brief  Course,  166,  172,  176-179,  182,  217; 
Painter :  Hist.  Educ.,  ist  ed.,  131-135,  2d  ed.,  148- 
153  ;  Payne :  Lects.  on  Hist.  Educ.,  v.  2,  36,  39,  41,  70, 
278,  285;  Russell:  Germ.  Higher  Schs.,  20-24; 
Seeley :  Hist.  Educ.,  161-163,  U-  S.  Corner  Educ. 
Repts.,  1901,  v.  i,  861-884,  1902,  v.  i,  481-508; 
Williams:  Hist.  Mod.  Educ.,  56-65.) 

a.  Studied  under  Hegius  at  Deventer,  also  at  Paris,  Oxford, 

and  in  Italy  and  Germany. 

b.  Famous  scholar  and  humanistic  writer  —  knew  Greek, 

Latin,  theology,  and  literature. 

c.  Edited  Greek  and  Latin  classics  and  works  of  the  church 

fathers. 

d.  Wrote  textbooks  and  elementary  treatises  on  education : 

Order  of  Study,  Liberal  Education  of  Children,  Juve- 
nile Etiquette,  Colloquies,  Praise  of  Folly,  Adages,  The 
Ciceronians. 

e.  Advocated  the^tudy  of  history,  geography,  natural  history 

and  agriculture,  in  subordinate  relation  to  the  classics. 
/.   Urged  adaptation  and  sympathy  in  the  education  of 

children. 
h.   Believed  in  the  education  of  women. 

7.  John  Sturm  (1507-1589). 

(Barnard :  Germ.  Trs.  &•  Educators,  195-223,  Journ.  of 
Educ.,  v.  4,  167-182,  401-415  ;  Compayre :  Hist.  Ped., 


74  Outlines  of  the  History  of  Education 

85  ;  Kemp :  Hist.  Educ.,  175-179 ;  Monroe :  Text-Bk.  in 
Hist.  Educ.,  391-393,  397,  4°9>  4*5,  4§3,  Brief  Course, 
183-185;  Painter:  Hist.  Educ.,  ist  ed.,  159-164,  2d 
ed.,  179-184;  Payne:  Lects.  on  Hist.  Educ.,  v.  2,  43, 
70,  281-282;  Quick:  Educ.  Refs.,  27-32;  Russell: 
Germ.  Higher  Schs.,  42-44,  141,  389;  Seeley:  Hist. 
Educ.,  175-178;  U.  S.  Com'r  Educ.  Kept.,  1897-1898, 
v.  i,  31-32;  Williams:  Hist.  Mod.  Educ.,  96-101.) 

a.  Pupil  of  Wimfeling  —  educated  in  a  Hieronymian  school 

—  studied  also  and  lectured  at  Louvain  and  Paris. 

b.  Originator  of   the  German   classical   secondary   school 

system  in  that  he  organized  the  first  German  gym- 
nasium at  Strasburg  and  was  its  director  from  1538  to 

1583- 

c.  Character  of  this  school. 

(1)  10  years'  course,  beginning  at  age  of  6  or  7  years. 

(2)  Religion,  Latin,  and  Greek  the  chief  studies,  with 

some  arithmetic,  geometry,  astronomy,  rhetoric, 
and  logic  in  the  higher  grades. 

(3)  Language  the  basis  of  work :  pure  humanism. 

(4)  Seven  years  devoted  to  the  mastery  of  pure  idiomatic 

Latin,  three  years  to  the  acquisition  of  style. 

(5)  Greek  begun  in  the  fifth  year. 

(6)  First  detailed  and  organized  course  of  study. 

(7)  To  be  followed  by  5-year  college  course. 

(8)  Method  of  study:   double  translation,  memorizing, 

composition,  correlation,  review,  dramatizing. 

(9)  Influence :  set  the  standard  for  secondary  curricula 

in  Germany,  France,  and  England,  making 
classical  learning  almost  exclusively  the  con- 
tent of  secondary  education,  even  up  to  recent 
times. 


Education  during  the  Period  of  the  Renaissance     75 

In  England 

1.  John  Colet  (1466-1519). 

(Barnard :  Journ.  of  Educ.,  v.  16,  657-688  ;  Kemp :  Hist. 
Educ.,  154-155,  171-172;  Monroe:  Text-Bk.  in  Hist. 
Educ.,  382,  388,  393~395>  4*9,  Brief  Course,  182,  186; 
Payne :  Lects.  on  Hist.  Educ.,  v.  2,  41,  52,  283-285 ; 
Seebohm :  Era  of  Prot.  Ref.,  76-88,  The  Oxford  Refs. 
of  1498,  76-96 ;  U.  S.  Com'r  Educ.  Repts.,  1901,  v.  i, 
861-884,  1902,  v.  i,  481-508.) 

a.  Educated  at  Oxford  and  in  Italy,  where  he  came  under 

the  influence  of  Savonarola. 

b.  Lectured     at    Oxford    on     St.     Paul's    Epistles    and 

revolutionized    the   work   of    the   university  by  his 
teaching. 

c.  Founded  St.  Paul's  School  in  1510  and  organized  the 

humanistic  learning  for  the  secondary  schools. 

d.  Wrote  schoolbooks. 

2.  Roger  Ascham  (1515-1568). 

(Ascham :  The  Scholemaster  (Appleton  or  Heath) ;  Bar- 
nard :  Journ.  of  Educ.,  v.  3,  23-46,  v.  4, 155-166,  v.  n, 
57-76,  v.  26,  325-336 ;  Browning :  Educ.  Theories,  99- 
103;  Kemp:  Hist.  Educ.,  182-183;  Monroe:  Text- 
Bk.  in  Hist.  Educ.,  382-385,  388,  392,  Brief  Course, 
179-180,  221-223;  Painter:  Ped.  Essays,  228-239; 
Payne:  Lects.  on  Hist.  Educ.,  v.  2,  57-63,  169,  287, 
Lects  on  Sci.  &•  Art.  of  Educ.,  149-154 ;  Quick :  Educ. 
Refs.,  80-89;  Seeley:  Hist.  Educ.,  190-192;  Wil- 
liams: Hist.  Mod.  Educ.,  106-107.) 

a.  Studied  at  Cambridge  and  taught  Greek  there  —  tutor 

of  Queen  Elizabeth  —  humanistic  educator. 

b.  Wrote  Tlie   Scholemaster,  first   treatise  on  educational 


76  Outlines  of  the  History  of  Education 

theory  in  English,  noted  for  its  charm  of  style  and  for 
the  method  of  teaching  Latin  set  forth,  viz.:  double 
translation,  imitation  of  style,  paraphrase,  resume, 
study  of  synonyms  and  variations,  grammar  through 
analysis  and  parsing. 

THE  REFORMATION  AND  EDUCATION  (i 5111-17™  CENTURIES) 

(Compayre :  Hist.  Fed.,  112-137;  Kemp:  Hist.  Educ.,  162- 
170;  Monroe:  Text-Bk.,  401-437,  Brief  Course,  189-201; 
Painter :  Hist.  Educ.,  ist  ed.,  135-166,  2d  ed.,  153-187  ;  Quick : 
Educ.  Refs.,  27-32;  Russell:  Germ.  Higher  Schs.,  22-47; 
Seeley:  Hist.  Educ.,  164-181;  U.  S.  Corner  Educ.  Rept., 
1897-1898,  v.  i,  26-45  I  Williams :  Hist.  Mod.  Educ.,  42-55, 
91-106.) 

1.  Origin. 

a.  Revival  of  learning. 

b.  Humanism  in  the  universities. 

c.  New  study  of  the  Bible  in  Teutonic  Renaissance. 

2.  Relation  to  education. 

a.  By  translations  of  Bible,  offered  incentive  to  learn,  at 

least  to  read, 
(i)  Gave  birth  to  universal  elementary  instruction. 

b.  Emphasized  function  of  individual  reason, 
(i)  Hence  demanded  intellectual  training. 

c.  Reformers  were  humanists. 

(i)  Combined  religious  material  and  classical  languages 
in  curriculum  of  higher  instruction. 

3.  Educational  effects. 

a.  Common  schools  for  both  sexes. 

b.  State  support  of  elementary  schools, 
(i)  Demanded  educated  laity. 


Education  during  the  Period  of  the  Renaissance     77 

(2)  Growth  of  idea  that  welfare  of  State  depends  on  the 

education  of  the  individual  citizen. 

(3)  Led  to  idea  of  compulsory  education. 
c.  Systems  of  schools  established. 

(1)  German  public  school  system. 

(a)  Begun  by  city  of  Magdeburg,  in  1524,  on  plan  of 

Luther. 

(b)  Established  by  Electorate  of  Saxony  in  1528  after 

recommendations  of  Melancthon. 

(c)  Made  a  general  system  of  elementary  vernacu- 

lar schools  in  every  village  in  1565. 

(d)  Eventually  the  Latin  schools,  being  expanded  to 

six  classes  instead  of  three  as  Melancthon 
advocated,  became  the  gymnasien. 

(2)  In  England,  Scotland,  Holland,  and  America. 

(a)  Not  a  State  system  of  schools  in  England,  but 

many  schools  founded  through  private  or 
church  aid,  e.g.  "  the  Great  Public  Schools  " 
(Shrewsbury  1551,  Westminster  1560,  Rugby 
1567,  Harrow  1571,  Charterhouse  1609,  also 
St.  Paul's  1512,  Merchant  Taylors'  1561, 
Christ's  Hospital  1619). 

(b)  Cooperation  of  State  and  Church  in  Scotland — 

landholders  taxed  to  support  schools  in  every 
parish,  often  both  elementary  and  secondary. 

(c)  System  of  elementary  schools  established  by  the 

reformed  churches  of  Holland,  which  later,  in 
connection  with  the  State,  extended  the  sys- 
tem to  every  parish :  origin  of  earliest  schools 
in  American  colonies. 

(d)  In  1647,  through  efforts  of  the  Church  and  the 

Commonwealth  of  Massachusetts,  elementary 


78  Outlines  of  the  History  of  Education 

schools  were  established  in  all  towns  of  fifty 
families  and  a  Latin  school  in  all  towns  of 
one  hundred  families  —  in  1650,  Connecticut 
passed  similar  law. 
(3)  In  Roman  Catholic  countries  (Counter-Reformation) . 

(a)  Jesuit  schools  (cf.  p.  83). 

(b)  Port  Royalist  schools  (cf.  p.  89). 

(c)  Oratorian  schools  (cf.  p.  89). 

(d)  Christian  Brothers'  schools  (cf.  p.  92). 

Representative  Reformation  Educators 

Martin  Luther  (1483-1546) 

(Barnard:  Germ.  Trs.  &•  Educators,  131-159,  Journ.  of  Educ., 
v.  4,  421-449;  Compayre:  Hist.  Fed.,  113-120;  Kemp: 
Hist.  Educ.,  165-170;  Monroe:  Text-Bk.,  408-414,  Brief 
Course,  194-197;  Painter:  Hist.  Educ.,  ist  ed.,  135-147,  Fed. 
Essays,  169-186 ;  Russell :  Germ.  Higher  Schs.,  28-34 ;  Wil- 
liams :  Hist.  Mod.  Educ.,  42-55.) 

1.  Early  life  and  education. 

a.  Born  at  Eisleben,  Germany  —  son  of  peasant,  hence  in 

sympathy  with  common  people. 

b.  At  school  at  Magdeburg  and  at  Eisenach,  also  at  uni- 

versity of  Erfurt  —  became  Augustinian  friar. 

2.  Professor  of  theology  at  university  of  Wittenburg  (1508). 

a.  Attained  fame  as  teacher,  preacher,  and  writer. 

b.  Great  theological  and  humanistic  scholar. 

3.  Relations  to  Reformation. 

a.  Opposed  to  sale  of  indulgences  (1516). 

b.  Published  his  95  Theses  (1517). 

c.  Forced  into  rebellion. 

(i)  Bull  of  excommunication  burned  (1520). 


Education  during  the  Period  of  the  Renaissance     79 

d.  Before  Diet  of  Worms  (1521). 

(1)  Decided  against  him. 

(2)  German  princes  and  Melancthon  sided  with  him. 

e.  Further  developments  after  his  death. 

(1)  Freedom  of  religion  granted  by  emperor  (1552). 

(2)  Diet  of  Augsburg  granted  toleration  (1555). 

(3)  Teutonic  peoples  rapidly  embraced  the  new  ideas. 

4.  His  translation  of  Bible  into  German. 

a.  New  Testament  (i524)-Bible  (1534). 

b.  Standardized  the  German  language. 

c.  Gave  immense  impetus  to  education. 

5.  His  letter  to  German  cities  (1524). 

a.  Protested  against  condition  of  schools  throughout  Ger- 

many. 

b.  Duty  of  Christians  to  educate  children. 

c.  Duty  of  officials  to  establish  schools. 

d.  Duty  of  State  to  support  and  to  control  them. 

e.  Elementary  instruction  should  be  provided  for  both 

sexes. 

/.  Provision  should  be  made  for  needs  of  the  common  people. 
g.  Public  libraries  also  were  urged. 

6.  Sermon  on  duty  of  sending  children  to  school  (1530). 

a.  Duty  of  minister,  parents,  and  all  citizens. 

b.  Need  of  educated  men  and  women. 

c.  Temporal  and  spiritual  benefits  from  the  schools:    in 

civil  service,  government,  and  professions. 

7.  His  educational  ideas. 

a.  Compulsory,  universal,  elementary  instruction,  for  both 

sexes. 

b.  State  support  and  supervision. 

c.  Home  to  supplement  the  work  of  the  school. 

d .  Education  necessary  because  of 


8o  Outlines  of  the  History  of  Education 

(1)  Its  moral  value. 

(2)  Its  relation  to  prosperity. 

(3)  The  needs  of  religion. 

e.  Natural   methods,   trained   teachers,   sympathetic   but 

firm  discipline. 
/.   State  system  of  schools. 

(1)  Elementary  school :  for  the  common  people. 
(a)  Instruction  in  the  vernacular. 

(6)  To  meet  the  immediate  needs  of  the  people. 

(2)  Secondary  or  Latin  school. 

(a)  Instruction  in  Latin,  Greek,  Hebrew,  history, 
mathematics,  grammar,  rhetoric,  logic,  na- 
ture, music,  and  physical  exercise. 

(6)  To  supply  intelligent,  well-disciplined  citizens. 

(3)  Higher  school  or  university. 

(a)  Advanced  studies  in  the  several  departments. 

(b)  To  train  teachers  and  preachers. 

Philip  Melancthon  (1497-1560) :    called  "  the  Preceptor  of 

Germany  " 

(Barnard:  Germ.  Trs.  &  Educators,  161-184,  251-259,  Journ. 
of  Educ.,  v.  4,  741-764,  v.  5,  77-78,  v.  6,  426-434,  v.  n,  159- 
164,  400-459,  v-  20,  528-554;  Kemp:  Hist.  Educ.,  172-175; 
Monroe:  Text-Bk.,  414-416,  Brief  Course,  197-198  ;  Painter: 
Hist.  Educ.,  ist  ed.,  148-152;  Russell:  Germ.  Higher  Schs., 
34-35  5  Williams :  Hist.  Mod.  Educ.,  91-96.) 

i.  Early  life  and  education. 

a.  Born  in  Bretten,  Germany. 

b.  First  at  obscure  school,  strict  training  in  grammar  — 

pupil  of  Reuchlin,  his  great-uncle  —  then  at  uni- 
versities of  Heidelberg  and  of  Tubingen. 


Education  during  the  Period  of  the  Renaissance     81 

Teacher. 

a.  Taught  Greek  at  university  of  Tubingen. 

b.  Called  to  chair  of  Greek  at  university  of  Wittenburg 

(1518). 

c.  Lectured  much  also  on  literature,  philosophy,  theology, 

and  pedagogy. 

d.  Great  numbers  of  pupils. 

e.  Many  of  them  became  leading  educators. 
Writer. 

a.  Textbooks  widely  used  in  German  schools,  on  Latin  and 

Greek  grammar,  logic,  rhetoric,  ethics,  physics, 
history,  theology,  as  well  as  annotated  editions  of 
ancient  classics. 

b.  Addresses  on  educational  organization  and  values. 

c.  Correspondence  with  fifty-six  German  cities  regarding 

their  schools. 
Relations  to  Luther. 

a.  Friend  and  ally. 

b.  Formulated  and  carried  out  many  of  Luther's  educa- 

tional suggestions. 
Organizer  of  "  the  Saxony  School  Plan"  (1528). 

a.  Scheme  drawn  up  when  visitant  or  inspector  of  churches 

and  schools  of  Saxony. 

b.  Three  grades  of  study. 

(1)  First:   alphabet,  Lord's  prayer,  creed  and  prayers; 

also  writing,  singing,  and  simple  Latin  grammar. 

(2)  Second  :  ^Esop's  fables,  writings  of  Erasmus,  epistles 

of  St.  Paul,  grammatical  study  of  St.  Matthew's 
Gospel,  memorizing  of  a  few  psalms  and  some 
Latin  sentences,  music. 

(3)  Third  :  grammar,  Virgil,  Ovid,  and  Cicero,  versifica- 

tion, rhetoric,  logic,  Latin  conversation,  music. 


82  Outlines  of  the  History  of  Education 

c.  No  Greek  nor  mathematics. 

d.  Neglect  of  the  vernacular,  Latin  being  the  only  language. 

e.  Urged  fewer  studies  and  fewer  books. 

/.   This  plan  served  as  basis  of  organization  for  many  schools 

throughout  Germany. 
g.  Slightly  expanded,  these  schools  became  the  gymnasien 

of  the  later  German  system. 

Huldreich  or  Ulrich  Zwingli  (1484-1532) 

(Compayre:   Hist.  Educ.,  113-114;  Kemp:   Hist.  Educ.,  164 ; 
Monroe:  Text-Bk.,  410,  Brief  Course,  195.) 

1 .  Great  Swiss  reformer  and  teacher. 

2.  Educational  work. 

a.  Published  Latin  work  on  teaching,  viz. :   The  Christian 

Education  of  Youth. 

b.  Urged  establishment  of  elementary  schools. 

c.  Encouraged  Scriptural  study,  classical  learning,  Hebrew, 

study  of  nature,   arithmetic,   surveying,   music,  and 
physical  development. 

d.  Defended  civil  and  religious  liberty. 

John  Calvin  (1509-1564) 

(Compayre:    Hist.  Educ.,  113-114;   Monroe:    Text-Bk.,  410, 
Brief  Course,  195.) 

1.  Religious  and  theological  controversialist. 

2.  Educational  work. 

a.  Organized  college  of  Geneva,  which  was  a  typical  hu- 

manistic Latin  school. 

b.  Similar  schools  later  established  in  France  and  Ger- 

many (Fiirstenschulen). 

c.  Ardent  preacher  of  religious  liberty. 


Education  during  the  Period  of  the  Renaissance     83 

Valentine  Trotzendorf  (1490-1556) 

(Barnard  :  Germ.  Trs.  6*  Educators,  185-191,  Journ.  of  Educ., 
v.  5, 107-113  ;  Payne :  Lects.  on  Hist.  Educ.,  v.  2,  43,  279-281 ; 
Seeley:  Hist.  Educ.,  178-179;  U.  S.Com'r  Educ.  Kept.,  1897- 
1898,  v.  1,31.) 

1.  Pupil  of  Melancthon  and   teacher  in  school  at  Goldberg 

for  thirty-five  years. 

2.  Educational  work. 

a.  Urged  the  classical  course  exclusively,  after  the  example 

of  John  Sturm. 
6.  Advocated  methods  of  conversation  in  Latin,  use  of 

concrete  objects  and  illustrations . 
c.  Introduced  plan  of  pupil  government. 

Michael  Neander  (1525-1595) 

(Barnard:  Germ.  Trs.  &•  Educators,  225-228,  Journ.  of  Educ., 
v.  5,  599-602;  Painter:  Hist.  Educ.,  ist  ed.,  103-104;  Seeley: 
Hist.  Educ.,  179-180;  U.S.  Corner  Educ.  Kept.,  1897-1898,  v. 
i,3i-) 

1.  Pupil  of   Melancthon   and  teacher  in  famous  school  at 

Ilfeld-am-Harz  for  forty-five  years. 

2.  Educational  work. 

a.  Adopted  a  curriculum  which  included  Latin,   Greek, 

natural  science,   history,  geography,  chemistry,  and 
medicine. 

b.  Wrote  Latin  and  Greek  textbooks. 

The  Jesuit  Schools  (the  Counter-Reformation  of  the  Society 

of  Jesus) 

(Barnard :  Germ.  Trs.  &•  Educators,  232-242,  287-289,  Journ. 
of  Educ.,  v.  5,  210-228,  v.  14,  455-482,  v.  27,  165-175  ;  Brown- 


84  Outlines  of  the  History  of  Education 

ing:  Educ.  Theories,  135-144;  Compayre :  Hist.  Fed.,  138- 
149;  Davidson:  Hist.  Educ.,  181-189;  Hughes:  Loyola  fe4 
the  Educ.  Syst.  of  the  Jesuits;  Kemp:  Hist.  Educ.,  184-192; 
Monroe :  Text-Bk.,  420-429,  Brief  Course,  201-206  ;  Munroe : 
Educ.  Ideal,  124-135;  Painter:  Hist.  Educ.,  ist  ed.,  166-173, 
2d  ed.,  187-194,  Fed.  Essays,  187-202 ;  Payne :  Lects.  on 
Hist.  Educ.,  45-51;  Quick:  Educ.  Refs.,  33-66;  Russell: 
Germ.  Higher  Schs.,  46-52  ;  Seeley:  Hist.  Educ.,  182-189.) 

1.  Foundation  of  the  Order  (1540). 

a.  By  Ignatius  Loyola  (1491-1556). 

b.  As  a  teaching  congregation. 

2.  Purpose. 

a.  To  strengthen  the  authority  of  the  papacy. 

b.  To  extend  the  dominion  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church. 

c.  To  combat  the  Protestant  heresies. 

3.  Educational  system :  Ratio  Studiorum. 

a.  Function. 

(1)  To  train  prospective  members. 

(2)  To  educate  youth  in  general. 

b.  Scope. 

(1)  Both  religious  and  secular. 

(2)  Secondary  and  higher  instruction. 

(a)  Little  attention  given  to  elementary  education 
and  the  instruction  of  the  masses. 

(6)  Inferior  colleges :  like  the  gymnasien. 

(c)  Superior  colleges :  like  the  universities  or  theo- 
logical seminaries. 

c.  Extent  of  influence. 

(i)  Great  growth:  by  1650,  372  colleges;  by  1700,  612 
colleges,  157  normal  schools,  24  universities, 
200  missions. 


Education  during  the  Period  of  the  Renaissance     85 

(2)  Attendance  large :  over  2000  students  at  some  col- 
leges; in  1773,  when  suppressed,  22,000  mem- 
bers of  order  and  over  200,000  students  in  all. 

d.  Organization. 

(1)  General  at  head  with  absolute  authority. 

(2)  Whole  field  divided  into  provinces  with  "  provin- 

cial "  in  charge. 

(a)  Monthly  report  of  provincial  concerning  charac- 
ter, conduct,  and  position  of  each  member. 

(6)  Quarterly  report  of  superior  in  charge  of  separate 
institution. 

(3)  Under  provincial,  rectors  of  colleges  appointed  by 

general. 

(4)  Under  rector,  prefects  of  studies,  appointed  by  pro- 

vincial. 

(5)  Teachers  supervised  by  rectors  and  prefects. 

(6)  Close  supervision  and  absolute  authority  of  superior 

officers. 

e.  Teachers. 

(i)  Picked  men  thoroughly  prepared. 

(a)  Graduates  of  both  lower  and  higher  colleges. 
(6)  To  be  permanent  teachers,  graduates  of  uni- 
versity and  normal  school  also. 
/.   Discipline. 

(1)  Rigorous  but  not  often  corporal  punishment. 

(2)  Publication  of  offenses. 

(3)  Rewards,  prizes,  titles,  badges,  encouraging  rivalry 

and  emulation. 
g.  Students. 

(i)  Groups  of  two,  as  rivals,  under  decurions,  to  whom 

they  recited. 
(a)  Served  as  corrective  and  incentive. 


86  Outlines  of  the  History  of  Education 

(2)  Honors  for  brilliant  pupils. 

(3)  Day  and  boarding  pupils. 
h.  Secondary  course. 

(1)  Began  at  14  years  of  age  and  lasted  5-7  years. 

(2)  Five  grades. 


(a)  Lower  grammar 
(6)  Middle  grammar 

(c)  Upper  grammar 

(d)  Humanity 

(e)  Rhetoric,  2-3  yrs. 


Grammar,  syntax,  and  selec- 
tions from  Cicero  in  Latin 
and  ^Esop  in  Greek. 

Classical  authors  and  Chris- 
tian Greek. 


(3)  Mathematics,   history,   geography,   and   nature   to 

slight    degree    distributed    throughout    the 
course. 

(4)  Mother  tongue  disregarded. 

(5)  Religious  instruction  emphasized. 
i.  Higher  course. 

(1)  Philosophy :  2-3  years. 

(a)  Logic,    ethics,    psychology,    mathematics,    and 
physical  science. 

(2)  Theology :  4-6  years. 

(a)  Theology,   church  history,   canon  law,   Sacred 

Scriptures,  Hebrew. 
j.  Method. 

(1)  Few  studies,  short  lessons,  graded,  much  theme  writ- 

ing and  much  oral  repetition. 

(2)  Sympathy  with  pupils,  to  make  them  love  study, 

and  to  make  work  pleasant. 

(3)  Memory  work,  frequent  reviews:    daily,  monthly, 

quarterly,  yearly. 

(4)  Emulation  emphasized. 

(5)  Predominance  of  training  in  literary  form. 

(6)  Ratio  Studiorum. 


Education  during  the  Period  of  the  Renaissance     87 

(a)  Prelection  or  modified  lecture. 
(b}  Repetition  or  oral  recitation. 
(c)  Disputation  or  debate. 

(7)  Prelection  of  Cicero  lesson,  by  teacher. 

(a)  Sketch  of  meaning  of  lesson. 

(b)  Literal  translation  following  order  of  words. 

(c)  Grammatical  analysis. 

(d)  Explanation  of  meaning  of  separate  words. 

(e)  Dictation  of  elegant  forms  to  be  memorized  or 

used  in  written  work. 

(/)   Repetition  of  translation  several  times, 
(g)  Frequently  explanation  of  the  history  and  geog  • 

raphy  of  the  lesson,  called  erudition. 

(8)  Repetition. 

(a)  Parts  or  all  of  lesson  required  to  be  reproduced 

by  pupils. 

(b)  Rules  and  memory  passages  recited. 

(c)  One  day  of  each  week  devoted  to  review. 

(9)  Disputation. 

(a)  Debates  or  "  concertations  "  of  points  in  gram- 

mar, rhetoric,  poetry,  or  on  opinions  of  writers. 

(b)  Judges  decided  results  and  awarded  prizes. 

(c)  In  higher  schools,  more  formal  and  more  im- 

portant exercises,  before  whole  faculty  and 
often  other  classes  of  students. 
Merits  of  Jesuit  education. 

a.  Well-trained  teaching  body,  thorough  in  discipline  and 

organization. 

b.  Teaching  gratuitous  and  a  matter  of  religious  devotion. 

c.  Uniformity  in  method,  leading  to 

(1)  Thorough  mastery  of  Latin. 

(2)  Skill  in  dispute. 


88  Outlines  of  the  History  of  Education 

d.  Highly  systemized  course. 

(1)  Definite  work  for  grades. 

(2)  Studies  adapted  to  pupils. 

e.  Maintained  dignity  of  literature. 

/.   Studied  nature  and  character  of  pupils. 
g.  Promoted  sympathy  and  pleasure  in  school. 

5.  Defects  of  the  system. 

a.  Interests  of  order  dominated  its  purpose. 

(i)  Political  activity  for  the  interests  of  the  church. 

b.  Education  narrow  and  showy. 

(1)  Well-rounded  development  disregarded. 

(2)  Independent  thought  not  encouraged. 
(d)  Too  much  memory  work. 

(3)  Receptive  and  reproductive  faculties  only  developed. 

c.  High  ideals  wanting. 

(1)  Religious  pride  and  intolerance  promoted. 

(2)  Baser  feelings  not  nobler  nature  fostered  by  emula- 

tion. 

d.  Authority  prevailed. 

(1)  Subjection  of  the  individual. 

(2)  Too  little  initiative. 

6.  Decline  of  the  order,  due  to 

a.  Political  activity. 

b.  Subordination  of  the  individual  to  authority. 

(i)  Complete  negation  of  the  spirit  of  the  Renaissance. 

c.  Neglect  of  primary  instruction. 

d.  Wrong  basis  in  ethics. 

7.  Effect  upon  education. 

a.  Greatly  increased  the  importance  and  influence  of  schools. 

b.  Promoted  thorough  training  of  teachers. 

c.  Proved  the  value  of  system  and  organization. 

d.  Made  sympathetic  discipline  effective. 


Education  during  the  Period  of  the  Renaissance     89 

The  Schools  of  the  Oratorians  (Oratory  of  Jesus) 

(Compayre:    Hist.    Educ.,    150-152;    Kemp:    Hist.    Educ., 
229-234;  Monroe:  ZVgf-l?A.,  429-430.) 

1.  Foundation  of  the  order. 

a.  In  France,  in  1614  (originally  in  Italy  in  1558). 

b.  Rival  of  the  order  of  Jesuits. 

c.  Teaching  order. 

2.  Purpose. 

a.  Similar  to  that  of  Jesuits. 

b.  Chiefly  secondary  education  and  preparation  for  priest- 

hood. 

3.  Character  of  their  instruction. 

a.  For  all  classes. 

b.  More  elastic  methods  —  milder  discipline. 

c.  More  liberal  views,  with  greater  attention  to  cultivation 

of  individualism. 

d.  First  three  years'  instruction  in  mother  tongue. 

e.  In  study  of  history,  French  language  continued  through- 

out course. 

/.  Studies  included  theology,  mathematics,  science,  his- 
tory, geography,  philosophy,  and  Latin — little  atten- 
tion to  Greek. 

The  Port  Royal  Schools  (Order  of  the  Jansenists) 

(Barnard:  Journ.  of  Educ.,  v.  28,  1-16;  Browning:  Educ. 
Theories,  145-148;  Compayre:  Hist.  Fed.,  153-163;  Kemp: 
Hist.  Educ.,  230-231;  Monroe:  Text-Bk.,  430-433,  Brief 
Course,  206-207  '•>  Munroe :  Educ.  Ideal,  135-147  ;  Painter : 
ist  ed.,  224-227,  2d  ed.,  238-244;  Quick:  Educ.  Refs., 
172-196;  Seeley:  Hist.  Educ.,  227-229.) 


go  Outlines  of  the  History  of  Education 

1.  Foundation  of  the  order. 

a.  By  St.  Cyran  (1581-1643). 

b.  Flourished  only  from  1637  to  1661. 

c.  Established  the  "Little  Schools"  at  Port  Royal,  France, 

in  1643. 

2.  Purpose. 

a.  To  protest  against  the  work  and  methods  of  the  Jesuits. 

b.  To  promote  the  welfare  of  the  masses  by  elementary 

education. 

c.  To  teach  more  evangelical  doctrine. 

d.  To  place  in  the  hands  of  the  people  the  Bible  and  the 

church  service  translated  into  the  vernacular. 

3.  Fundamental  educational  theories. 

a.  Childhood  inclined  naturally  to  evil  and  to  be  made  good 

through  education. 

b.  Education  the  most  important  influence  in  the  life  of 

the  child. 

c.  Purpose  of  education : 

(1)  To  develop  the  intelligence  to  highest  possible  point. 

(2)  To  shape  the  moral  and  religious  character. 

4.  Methods  of  instruction. 

a.  Small  classes,  careful  supervision. 

b.  Conversation,  outdoor  walks,  personal  association  with 

teachers. 

c.  Phonetic  method  for  reading. 

d.  Learning  to  be  made  pleasant. 

e.  Discipline  to  be  based  on  love  of  the  child. 

5.  Pedagogical  principles. 

a.  Opposed  emulation  (emphasized  by  Jesuits)  and  urged 

piety  and  love  instead. 

b.  Built  upon  understanding  rather  than  memory. 

(i)  Child  to  study  only  what  he  could  understand. 


Education  during  the  Period  of  the  Renaissance     91 

c.  Content  more  important  than  form  to  hold  interest  in 

the  beginning. 

d.  Much  use  of  senses  in  early  education. 

e.  Vernacular  to  precede  Latin. 

/.   Introduction  to  classical  literature  through  translations. 
g.  Latin  studied  with  little  grammar  and  much  translation 

into  vernacular. 
h.  Greek  studied  directly  from  vernacular  and  not  through 

medium  of  Latin. 
Chief  Port  Royalist  teachers  and  pupils. 

a.  Arnauld   (1612-1694):    author   of   Nouveaux   Elements 

de  Geometric,  Logique  (or  The  Art  of  Thinking), 
Grammaire  generate  et  raisonnee,  Reglement  des 
Etudes. 

b.  Lancelot    (1615-1695) :    author   of    Methodes  de  Port- 

Royal,  Jardin  des  Racines  Grecques  (for  learning 
Latin,  Greek,  Italian,  and  Spanish),  Nouvelle 
Methode  pour  apprendre  facilement  la  langue  Latine. 

c.  Pascal   (1623-1662) :    author  of  Pensees,  Lettres   Pro- 

vinciates —  also  discovered  that  air  has  weight. 

d.  Nicole    (1625-1695) :     moralist   and   logician  —  author 

with  Arnauld  of  Logique;  also  textbooks,  transla- 
tions, and  educational  treatises,  among  them: 
L' Education  d'un  Prince,  Essais  de  Morale. 

e.  La  Fontaine   (1621-1695):    famous   author   of  Conies 

(1664),  and  Fables  (1668) — member  of  French 

Academy  (1684). 
/.   Fenelon  l  (1651-1715) :    educator  and  author  of  Tele- 

maque  and  L' Education  des  Jeunes  Pities, 
g.  Rollin 2    (1661-1741) :    teacher    and  author    of    Traite 

des  Etudes  and  Histoire  A  ncienne. 

1  See  F6nelon,  p.  118.  *  See  Rollin,  p.  119. 


92  Outlines  of  the  History  of  Education 

The  Christian  Brothers'  Schools 

(Barnard:  Journ.  of  Educ.,  v.  3,  437-448,  v.  20,  211-216, 
v.  30,  729-735  ;  Compayre :  Hist,  of  Educ.,  253-277  ;  Kemp : 
Hist.  Educ.,  231-235;  Monroe:  Text-Bk.,  437-439,  Brief 
Course,  212-214;  Painter:  Hist.  Educ.,  ist  ed.,  112-113.) 

1.  Foundation  of  the  order  (1684). 

a.  By  Jean  Baptiste  de  La  Salle  (1651-1719). 

(1)  Religious  enthusiast  and  ascetic. 

(2)  Priest  at  Rheims. 

(3)  Weak  and  sickly  but  of  great  energy  —  kept  nightly 

vigils  —  knelt  on  sharp  stones  —  used  board 
with  iron  points  to  waken  him  when  over- 
come by  sleep. 

(4)  Received  doctor's  degree  from  university  of  Paris. 

b.  Began  with  school  for  boys  at  Rheims  in  1679. 

c.  Established  in  1684  the  Institute  of  the  Brethren  of 

the  Christian  Schools. 

(i)  Vows  of  stability  and  obedience  imposed  upon  his 
disciples. 

d.  Order  sanctioned  by  the  pope  and  the  king  in  1724. 

2.  Purpose. 

a.  To  organize  popular  education. 

b.  To  establish  schools  for  primary  instruction  and  for  the 

working  classes  (commercial  and  industrial). 

3.  Character  of  the  education,  as  set  forth  in  the  Conduct  of 

Schools. 

a.  Course  of  study:   reading,  writing,  orthography,  arith- 

metic, and  the  catechism  —  much  attention 
to  writing  —  native  language  studied  first. 

b.  Methods. 

(i)  Definite  and  mechanical  —  strictly  according  to  rule. 


Education  during  the  Period  of  the  Renaissance     93 

(2)  Concert  recitation. 

(3)  Simultaneous  teaching  —  pupils  carefully  graded. 

(4)  Much  questioning  in  arithmetic  and  the  catechism. 

(5)  Discipline  severe. 

(a)  Originally  with  the  ferule. 

(b)  Corporal  punishment  abolished  later. 

(c)  Penances  the  common  practice. 

(d)  Mutual  espionage. 

(e)  Rewards. 

(6)  Silence  required. 

(a)  Signs  instead  of  speech. 

(6)  Low  tone  if  necessary  to  speak. 

(7)  Christian  politeness. 

c.  Special  features. 

(1)  Instruction  gratuitous. 

(a)  La  Salle  believed  that  it  should  be  obligatory. 

(2)  Uniformity  in  methods  and  regulations. 

(3)  Written  rules. 

d.  Training  of  teachers  in  normal  schools. 

(1)  Seminary  of  schoolmasters  at  Rheims  in  1685,  later, 

one  at  Paris. 

(2)  All  members  of  order  to  be  professionally  trained 

for  the  work. 

(3)  Primary  school  for  practice  maintained  in  connec- 

tion with  the  normal  school. 

e.  Growth  of  schools. 

(1)  Schools  for  the  order,  for  the  training  of  teachers, 

for  practice,  for  technical  instruction,  and  for 
elementary  instruction  in  great  numbers. 

(2)  Many  members  of  order. 

(3)  Thousands  of  pupils. 

(4)  Found  in  Europe,  Asia,  Africa,  and  America. 


MODERN  EDUCATION 

REALISTIC  EDUCATION 

(Browning :  Educ.  Theories,  61-134 ;  Davidson :  Hist.  Educ., 
190-208;  Kemp:  Hist.  Educ.,  193-224;  Monroe:  Text-Bk., 
402-504,  Brief  Course,  215-253;  Munroe:  Educ.  Ideal, 
8-94;  Quick:  Educ.  Refs.,  63-171.) 

The  First  or  Transition  Period  of  Realism  (Humanistic  or 
Verbal  Realism) 

i.  The  educational  trend  toward  realism. 

a.  Defects  of  humanistic  education. 

(1)  Words  were  taught  instead  of  things. 

(2)  End  of  education  was  mostly  to  form  writers  and 

speakers. 

(3)  Language  was  taught,  not  as  a  means  of  preparing 

for  the  service  of  life,  but  as  dry  matter 
collected  and  arranged  by  grammarians: 
the  words  being  more  important  than  the 
student. 

b.  Causes  leading  to  new  views  and  new  aims, 
(i)  New  literatures  in  modern  languages. 

(a)  English :  Bacon,  Milton,  and  Shakespeare. 

(b)  French:     Moliere,  Corneille,  Racine,  La  Fon- 

taine, Pascal,  Fenelon,  Boileau,  and  De 
Sevigne. 

94 


Modern  Education  95 

(c)   German:    Sachs,  Von  Hutten,  Heine,  Gellert, 
Murner,  and  Bohme. 

(2)  Geographical  discoveries. 

Marco  Polo  (1236-1324)  and  Sir  John  Mande- 

ville  (1300-1372)  in  the  orient. 
1402,  Canary  Islands         }  _ 

TV/T    j   •       T  i  Bv  tne 

1419,  Madeira  Islands       I  p 

1460,  Cape  Verde  Islands 

1487,    Cape   of   Good   Hope   circumnavigated: 

making  new  route  by  sea  to  India. 
1492,  Columbus  discovered  America. 
1497,  John    Cabot    explored    coast    of    North 

America. 
1507,   Waldenseemiiller  wrote:    Introdiiction  to 

Geography  —  widely  read. 
1519-1521,  Magellan  circumnavigated  the  globe. 

(3)  Commercial  and  industrial  activity. 

(a)  Trading  with  the  orient. 

(b)  Shipbuilding. 

(c)  National  trade  and  manufacturing  in  England 

replaced  that  of  towns  and  guilds. 

(d)  Roads  and  canals  in  France  and  Germany  — 

new  trades  —  agriculture  encouraged. 

(4)  Scientific  activity.1 

(a)  Bacon  (1561-1626) :   the  inductive  method. 

(b)  Gallileo  (1609) :  the  telescope  and  the  pendulum. 

(c)  Kepler  (1609) :    the  laws  of  planetary  move- 

ments. 

(d)  Napier  (1614) :   logarithms. 

(e)  Harvey  (1616)  :  the  circulation  of  the  blood. 

See  page  66  for  inventions  of  gunpowder,  printing,  and  mariner's  compass. 


96  Outlines  of  the  History  of  Education 

(/)   Louis  XIII  (1635) :  the  French  Academy  of 

Sciences. 

(g)  Torricelli  (1643) :   the  barometer. 
(ti)  Guericke  (1650) :   the  air  pump. 
({)   Pascal  (c.  1650) :  that  air  has  weight, 
(j)    Charles  II  (1660) :  the  Royal  Society  of  England. 
(k)  Roemer  (c.  1670) :  the  velocity  of  light. 
(/)   Newton  (1684) :   the  laws  of  gravitation. 

2.  Essence  of  the  realistic  movement. 

a.  Appealed  to  experience  and  to  facts,  as  opposed  to 

authority  and  to  formal  memory  training. 

(1)  From  dead  things  to  living  nature. 

(2)  From  mechanical  to  organic  instruction. 

(3)  Emphasis  upon  phenomena  of  nature  and  social 

institutions. 

(4)  Prominence  given  to  mother  tongue. 

(5)  Study   of   mathematics,    history,    law,    nature   by 

observation,  arts,  and  trades. 

b.  Prepared  for  real  life  and  intercourse  with  the  world, 

not  for  discussions  in  the  schools. 

c.  Enriched   the   intelligence,    instead   of   burdening   the 

memory. 

d.  Stimulated  the  free  activity  of  the  mind. 

e.  Transferred  education  from  the  hands  of  the  church 

to  those  of  the  laity. 

3.  Verbal  realism  (the  transition  from  humanism  to  realism). 

a.  Outgrowth  of  early  Renaissance  influences. 

b.  Protest  against  narrow  formal  humanism. 

c.  Retained  classical  languages  and  literatures  as  objects 

and  means  of  study. 

d.  Purpose. 

(i)  To  gain  content,  not  form. 


Modern  Education  97 

(2)  To  master  life  as  regards  both  nature  and  society. 

(3)  To  utilize  form  only  as  the  key  to  the  understanding 

of  the  realities  of  thought. 

(4)  To  provide   physical,   moral,   and   social  develop- 

ment as  well  as  to  promote  study. 

(5)  To  encourage  a  broad  and  appreciative  study  of 

literature. 

Representative  Educators  of  the  Transition  Period 
Francois  Rabelais  (1483-1553) 

(Barnard:  Journ.  of  Educ.,  v.  14,  147-158;  Browning:  Educ. 
Theories,  80-91 ;  Compayre :  Hist.  Fed.,  91-100 ;  Kemp : 
Hist.  Educ.,  194 ;  Monroe :  Text-Bk.,  446-448,  Brief  Course, 
217-218;  Munroe:  Educ.  Ideal,  8-35;  Quick:  Educ.  Refs., 
63-69;  Seeley:  Hist.  Educ.,  192-195;  Williams:  Hist. 
Mod.  Educ.,  74-80.) 

1.  Successively  monk,  pastor,  physician,  and  scholar. 

2.  Writings. 

a.  Gargantua  and  Pantagruel. 

b.  Satirized  the  prevailing  formal,  insincere,  shallow  life. 

c.  Condemned  the  dominant  education  of  words. 

3.  His  plan  of  study. 

a.  Instead  of  linguistic  and  formal  literary  education,  one 

to  include  social,  moral,  religious,  and  physical 
elements. 

b.  Included  classical  languages:    Latin,   Greek,   Hebrew, 

Chaldean. 

c.  Also  physical  and  natural  sciences. 

(i)   By  object  lessons,  observation  of  nature,  and  excur- 
sions. 

d.  Embraced  encyclopedic  knowledge. 

H 


98  Outlines  of  the  History  of  Education 

4.  Means  of  study. 

a.  Books,  studied  for  content  and  for  practical  service  in  life. 

b.  Nature  itself. 

5.  Methods  of  education. 

a.  Physical. 

(1)  Gymnastics  and  games. 

(2)  Walks  and  excursions  in  open  air. 

(3)  Habits  of  cleanliness,  exercise,  and  regularity. 

b.  Intellectual. 

(1)  Intense  activity. 

(2)  Freedom  of  thought  and  action  instead  of  depend- 

ence upon  authority. 

(3)  Personal  acquaintance  with  nature. 

(4)  Object  lessons. 

(5)  Shop  work  for  arts  and  industries. 

(6)  Studies  to  be  pleasant :  interest,  not  compulsion,  to 

be  the  motive. 

c.  Moral. 

(1)  Precept  and  example. 

(2)  High  ideals. 

(3)  Associated  with  religion. 

(4)  To  be  made  attractive. 

6.  Influence. 

a.  Inspiration  to  writers  and  educators  who  came  after 
him  rather  than  directly  upon  school  work. 

John  Milton  (1608-1674) 

(Barnard:  Journ.  of  Educ.,  v.  2,  61-85,  v-  I4>  IS9~I9°>  v-  22> 
181-190,  v.  23,  151-160,  v.  28,  383-400;  Browning:  Educ. 
Theories,  104-117;  Graves:  Gt.  Educators  of  Three  Centuries, 
1-9 ;  Milton :  A  Tractate  on  Educ.  (Cambridge  Univ.  Press) ; 


Modern  Education  99 

Monroe:  Text-Bk.,  448-451,  Brief  Course,  219-220;  Painter: 
Hist.  Educ.,  ist  ed.,  188-194,  2d  ed.,  207-213,  Fed.  Essays, 
240-254;  Quick:  Educ.  Refs.,  212-218;  Seeley:  Hist.  Educ., 
217-220;  Williams:  Hist.  Mod.  Educ.,  191-202.) 

1.  Great  scholar  as  well  as  great  poet. 

2.  Author  of  A  Tractate  on  Education. 

3.  Educational  theories. 

a.  Objected  to 

(1)  Approach  to  study  through  formal  grammar. 

(2)  Formal  study  of  language  without  regard  to  content. 

(3)  Narrowness  of  aim. 

b.  Believed  that 

(1)  Education  must  be  realistic. 

(a)  Substance  more  important  than  form. 

(b)  Thought  more  important  than  words. 

(c)  Practical  efficiency  in  life  more  important  than 

showy  accomplishments. 

(2)  Language  should  be  taught  as  a  means  of  expression. 

(3)  Intellectual  effort  should  be  made  pleasant,  having 

regard  for  pupil's  development. 

(4)  There  should  be  physical  training. 

(5)  Nature,  society,  and  the  prof essions  should  be  studied 

through  literature. 

4.  Criticisms. 

a.  Made  books  the  sole  source  of  information. 

b.  Overvalued  both  books  and  information. 

c.  Did  little  to  advance  science  of  education. 

(1)  Too  much  emphasis  on  knowledge. 

(2)  Not  enough  on  observation,  reasoning,  and  inde- 

pendent thinking. 

d.  His  aim  in  studying  the  classics  not  approved. 


ioo  Outlines  of  the  History  of  Education 

(1)  Style  and  development  not  considered  important. 

(2)  Placed  too  much  reliance  on  them  as  sources  of 

knowledge  and  methods  of  trades  and  professions. 
e.  Nevertheless  his  fame  contributed  greatly  to  the  spread 
of  the  realistic  movement. 


Michael  de  Montaigne  (1533-1592) :    called  "  Social  Realist  " 

(Barnard:  Germ.  Trs.  &  Educators,  317-334,  Journ.  of  Educ., 
v.  4,  461-478;  Browning:  Educ.  Theories,  91-98;  Compayre, 
Hist.  Fed.,  100-111 ;  Kemp:  Hist.  Educ.,  195-197  ;  Monroe: 
Text-Bk.,  451-461,  Brief  Course,  221-226;  Montaigne:  The 
Educ.  of  Children  (ed.  Rector,  Appleton) ;  Munroe :  Educ. 
Ideal,  95-101 ;  Painter:  Hist.  Educ.,  ist  ed.,  175-178,  2d  ed., 
196-200,  Fed.  Essays,  203-227;  Quick:  Educ.  Refs.,  70-79; 
Seeley:  Hist.  Educ.,  195-198;  Williams:  Hist.  Mod.  Educ., 
80-90.) 

1.  Life. 

a.  Well  educated  by  German  tutor,  at  university  and  in 

law  —  classically  trained. 

b.  Member  of  French  parliament  —  mayor. 

c.  Wealthy,  retired — became  author. 

d.  Works  on  education. 

(1)  The  Education  of  Children. 

(2)  Pedantry. 

(3)  The  Affection  of  Fathers. 

(4)  Habit. 

(5)  History. 

2.  Character  of  his  educational  views. 

a.  Education  should  shape  judgment  and  disposition  rather 
than  seek  knowledge. 


Modern  Education  101 

6.  Should  prepare  one  for  practical,  successful,  happy  serv- 
ice in  life,  as  a  "  man  of  the  world." 

c.  By  travel,   should  furnish  experience  and  familiarity 

with  men  and  customs. 

d.  Should  aim  at  social  efficiency. 

3.  His  relation  to  humanism. 

a.  Opposed  knowledge  of  the  ancients  as  the  ideal  of  edu- 

cation. 

b.  Books  and  knowledge  not  of  importance  but  "  wisdom," 

the  product  of  well-trained  judgment. 

4.  His  relation  to  verbal  realism. 

a.  Emphasized  the  gaining  of  ideas  and  the  ability  to  think 
clearly  rather  than  content  in  place  of  words. 

5.  His  relation  to  later  scientific  realism. 

a.  Regarded  realities  of  thought  as  more  important  than 

those  of  the  senses. 

b.  Shared  the  opposition  of  the  early  scientists  to  the  formal 

artificial  education  of  the  times. 

6.  His  relation  to  naturalistic  education. 

a.  Did  not  approve  of  getting  close  to  nature  by  withdraw- 

ing from  the  world,  as  did  Rousseau. 

b.  Urged  association  with  men  and  life. 

(1)  For  experience  with  others. 

(2)  As  discipline  of  judgment. 

7.  Other  features  of  his  conception  of  education. 

a.  Emphasized  not  the  mind,  not  the  body,  but  the  man. 

b.  Aimed  not  at  what  to  think  but  how  to  live. 

c.  Knowledge  should  be  assimilated. 

d.  Ideas  should  be  realized  in  conduct,  practiced  rather 

than  memorized. 

e.  Education  should  be  general  not  special. 
/.  Language  should  be  gained  by  use. 


io2  Outlines  of  the  History  of  Education 

(1)  Mother  tongue  of  first  importance. 

(2)  Exercise  of  the  judgment  essential. 
g.  Methods. 

(1)  Conversation. 

(2)  Stimulating  of  curiosity. 

(3)  Observation. 

(4)  Object  lessons. 

(5)  Social  intercourse. 

(6)  Reflection  and  assimilation. 
h.  Discipline  pleasant. 

i.   Physical  training  important. 

(i)  For  health,  strength,  endurance,  and  skill. 
j.   Education  of  women  not  favored  to  great  extent. 
8.  Importance  of  Montaigne's  conception  of  education. 

a.  Beginning  of  idea  that  education  is  a  process  of  growth. 

b.  Expression  of  new  purpose,  that  of  forming  or  training 

the  mind. 

Richard  Mulcaster  (1531-1611):  English  Realist 

(Barnard:  Journ.  of  Educ.,  v.  24,  179-184,  v.  28,  743-748; 
Kemp:  Hist.  Educ.,  200;  Monroe:  Text- Bk.,  465-467,  Brief 
Course,  230 ;  Mulcaster :  Positions  (ed.  Quick) ;  Quick :  Educ. 
Refs.,  90-102  ;  Williams :  Hist.  Mod.  Educ.,  107-113.) 

i.  Life. 

a.  Educated  at  Eton,  Cambridge,  and  Oxford. 

b.  Schoolmaster  in  London  (1555). 

c.  Headmaster  of  Merchant  Taylors'  School  (1561-1586). 

d.  Headmaster  of  St.  Paul's  School  (1586-1608). 

e.  Writer  on  education. 

(1)  Positions  (1581). 

(2)  The  Elementarie,  Part  i  (1582). 


Modern  Education  103 

2.  Educational  principles. 

a.  Aim  :  to  aid  nature  in  perfecting  the  mental  and  physi- 

cal development  of  the  pupil. 

b.  Adaptation  to  pupil. 

(1)  In  knowledge  presented. 

(2)  In  methods  employed. 

(3)  According  to  pupils'  natural  development. 

c.  Emphasis  on  elementary  instruction. 

(1)  For  both  sexes. 

(2)  In  English. 

(a)  Wrote  a  text  as  model. 

(3)  Not  all  pupils  fitted  for  higher  education. 

(4)  Urged  thorough  training  of  teachers. 

(a)  Early  instruction  considered  most  important  for 
foundation. 

d.  School  education  better  than  tutorial. 

e.  Physical  training  essential. 

/.   Classical  languages  of  limited  value. 
g.  Studies  should  be  made  pleasurable. 
h.  Urged  the  importance  of  training  the  individual  rather 
than  teaching  subject  matter. 

Sir  Francis  Bacon  (1561-1626):    Scientific  Realist 

(Bacon:  Novum  Organum,  Advancement  of  Learning  (Bohn 
Library) ;  Barnard :  Germ.  Trs.  6*  Educators,  261-290,  Journ. 
of  Educ.,  v.  5,  535-540,  655-681 ;  Compayre:  Hist.  Fed.,  123- 
124 ;  Encycl.  Brit.,  art.  Bacon ;  Graves :  Gt.  Educators  of  Three 
Centuries,  10-19;  Hailman :  Hist.  Fed.,  52-62;  Kemp:  Hist. 
Educ.,  198-200;  Monroe:  Text-Bk.  in  Hist.  Educ.,  468-478, 
Brief  Course,  230-237  ;  Munroe :  Educ.  Ideal,  36-67  ;  Painter : 
Hist.  Educ.,  ist  ed.,  179-187,  2d  ed.,  200-207;  Seeley:  Hist. 
Educ.,  205-209;  Williams:  Hist.  Mod.  Educ.,  ch.  5.) 


io4  Outlines  of  the  History  of  Education 

1.  Life. 

a.  Educated  at  Cambridge. 

b.  Failed  in  political  life,  though  he  held  high  office. 

c.  Endeavored  to  formulate  all  knowledge. 

d.  Wrote  on  education. 

(1)  Instuamtio  Magna,  to  be  an  encyclopedia  of  knowl- 

edge. 

(2)  Advancement  of  Learning. 

(3)  Novum  Organum. 

(4)  Essays. 

2.  Aim. 

a.  To  systematize  human  knowledge. 

b.  To  formulate  method  for  investigation  of  phenomena. 

c.  To  collect  the  results  of  experience  with  nature. 

d.  To  outline  a  plan  of  natural  philosophy  from  the  ma- 

terial collected. 

e.  To  deduce  true  philosophy  of  nature. 

3.  Basis  of  knowledge. 

a.  Uniformity  of  nature. 

(1)  Knowledge  unified  is  simple. 

(2)  Knowledge  based  on  this  uniformity  deals  with  laws 

and  principles  which  can  be  investigated  and  de- 
termined. 

b.  Derived  first  from  study  of  phenomena  of  nature. 

c.  Derived  next  from  study  of  phenomena  of  mind,  i.e.  from 

language,  literature,  philosophy,  and  theology. 

4.  Method. 

a.  Induction  instead  of  deduction. 

b.  Process  determined  by  the  end  sought. 

(1)  The  starting  point  not  an  accepted  authoritative  law. 

(2)  But  problem  to  be  solved  by  the  investigation  of 

particular  facts. 


Modern  Education  105 

c.  Observation  not  authority. 

d.  Deduction  of  secondary  value  for  application. 

e.  Investigation  and  experimentation  for  discovery  of  truth. 

(1)  To  gain  power  over  nature. 

(2)  To  gain  power  through  knowledge. 

(3)  To  correct  experience  of  the  senses  by  experiment. 

/.   Subject  to  difficulties  of  tradition,  prejudice,  custom,  and 

doctrine. 
Influence. 

a.  Led  to  study  of  method  of  attaining  knowledge  by  the 

individual. 

b.  Promoted  the  method  of  teaching  as  applied  to  the  indi- 

vidual. 

c.  Inspired  others  to  study  processes  of  thought  just  as  he 

studied  the  subject  matter  of  thought. 

d.  Aided  especially  Ratich,  Comenius,  Locke,  and  Rousseau 

in  their  educational  work. 


INNOVATORS  OF  THE  SIXTEENTH  AND  SEVENTEENTH 
CENTURIES 

Introduction 

Their  principles  (cf.  Quick :  Educ.  Refs.,  p.  104). 

a.  Study  of  things  should  precede  or  be  united  with  the 

study  of  words. 

b.  Knowledge  should  be  communicated  when  possible  by 

appeals  to  the  senses. 

c.  Linguistic  study  should  begin  with  that  of  the  mother 

tongue. 

d.  Latin  and  Greek  should  be  taught  to  those  only  who  were 

to  complete  a  learned  education. 


io6  Outlines  of  the  History  of  Education 

e.  Physical  education  should  be  promoted  for  the  sake  of 

health. 

/.   The  method  of  teaching  should  be  "  according  to  nature." 
2.  Their  methods. 

a.  From  concrete  to  abstract  or  a  knowledge  of  the  thing 

itself  before  the  rules  which  refer  to  it. 

b.  From  analysis  to  synthesis. 

c.  Method  of  discovery  rather  than  acceptance  of  truth 

upon  authority. 

d.  Interest  not  coercion  most  important  in  the  acquisition 

of  knowledge. 

e.  Only  that  which  is  understood  may  be  committed  to 

memory. 

Wolfgang  Ratich  (1571-1635)  (Ratke  or  Ratichius) :  Realist 

or  Innovator 

(Barnard :  Germ.  Trs.  &  Educators,  335-370,  Journ.  of  Educ., 
v.  5,  229-256,  v.  6,  459-466;  Browning:  Educ.  Theories,  61- 
66;  Compayre :  Hist.  Ped.,  121-122;  Graves:  Gt.  Educators 
of  Three  Centuries,  20-26;  Kemp:  Hist.  Educ.,  201-206; 
Monroe  :  Text-Bk.,  478-480,  Brief  Course,  237-238 ;  Painter : 
Hist.  Educ.,  ist  ed.,  194-200,  2d  ed.,  213-219;  Quick:  Educ. 
Refs.,  103-118;  Seeley:  Hist.  Educ.,  209-211;  Williams: 
Hist.  Mod.  Educ.,  154-162.) 

i.  Life. 

a.  Born  at  Wilster,  in  Holstein. 

b.  Studied  at  Hamburg  and  the  university  of  Rostock. 

c.  Traveled  to  Holland  and  England. 

d.  Elaborated  a  scheme  for  teaching  at  Electoral  Diet,  in 

Frankfort,  in  1612. 


Modern  Education  107 

(i)  Wrote    on    education:     Address    to    Princes    and 

Methodus  Nova. 

e.  Unsuccessful  experiment  at  Augsburg. 
/.  Failure  at  Koethen. 
His  aims. 

a.  To  teach  Latin,  Greek,  and  Hebrew  more  thoroughly  and 

in  shorter  time. 

b.  To  teach  all  the  arts  and  sciences  through  the  medium 

of  the  vernacular. 

c.  To  introduce  and  establish  throughout  Germany  uni- 

formity in  speech,  government,  and  religion. 
His  rules. 

a.  Follow  nature. 

b.  One  thing  at  a  time. 

c.  Repetition. 

d.  Everything  through  the  mother  tongue. 

e.  Everything  without  constraint. 
/.  Nothing  to  be  learned  by  heart. 
g.   Uniformity  in  all  things. 

h.   The  thing  itself  first,  the  explanation  afterwards. 

i.   Everything  through  experience. 

His  method  of  teaching  the  mother  tongue. 

a.  The  alphabet  first. 

b.  Conversation  and  pronunciation. 

c.  Illustration  of  reading  lesson. 

(1)  Reading  twice  by  teacher  of  the  Book  of  Genesis, 

the  pupils  following  with  eye  and  finger. 

(2)  Reading  of  first  chapter,  pupils  repeating  each  four 

lines. 

(3)  Reading  of  whole  by  pupils. 

(4)  Explanation  of  grammar,  with  examples  in  text,  by 

teacher. 


io8  Outlines  of  the  History  of  Education 

(5)  Repetition  by  pupils. 

(6)  Reading  and  applications  of  grammatical  points. 

5.  His  method  of  teaching  Latin. 
a.  Illustrative  example. 

(1)  Reading  several  times  by  pupils  of  translation  of 

Terence. 

(2)  Translation  of  play  by  teacher. 

(3)  Translation  by  teacher,  repeated  by  pupils. 

(4)  Reading  and  translation  of  play  by  pupils,  with 

corrections  by  teacher. 

(5)  Lessons  in  Latin  grammar  read  by  teacher,  repeated 

by  pupils,  and  applied  to  play  of  Terence. 

(6)  Exercises  in  imitation  of  Terence. 

6.  Criticism  of  Ratich  (Ratke). 

a.  Pioneer  in  science  of  education. 

b.  Contributed  to  educational  progress. 

c.  Counteracted  influence  of  Jesuits. 

d.  Failed  through  lack  of  tact  and  experience. 

e.  Language  method  gave  teacher  too  much  to  do  and  the 

pupil  too  little  to  do. 
/.  Gave  impetus  to  study  of  vernacular. 
g.  Stimulated  many  who  followed  him,  notably  Pestalozzi. 

John  Amos  Comenius  (1592-1671) 

(Barnard:  Germ.  Trs.&  Educators,  381-402,  Journ.  of  Educ., 
v-  5)  257~298  ;  Browning:  Educ.  Theories,  67-79;  Come- 
nius :  Orbis  Pictus  (ed.  Bardeen) ;  Compayre :  Hist.  Fed., 
122-136;  Davidson:  Hist.  Educ.,  193-196;  Graves:  Gt. 
Educators  of  Three  Centuries,  27-51;  Hailman :  Hist.  Fed., 
52-62;  Hanus:  Educ.  Aims  &*  Values,  193-211;  Hoyt: 
Studies  in  Hist.  Educ.,  21-48;  Kemp:  Hist.  Educ.,  206-217; 


Modern  Education  109 

Misawa :  Mod.  Educators,  18-34 ;  Monroe :  Text-Bk.  in 
Hist.  Educ.,  480-496,  Brief  Course,  238-248  ;  Monroe,  W.  S., 
Comenius  6*  the  Beginning  of  Educ.  Reform;  Munroe :  Educ. 
Ideal,  68-94;  Painter:  Hist.  Educ.,  ist  ed.,  200-212,  2d  ed., 
219-230,  Fed.  Essays,  255-277  ;  Quick  :  Educ.  Refs.,  119-171 ; 
Seeley:  Hist.  Educ.,  211-217;  Williams:  Hist.  Mod.  Educ., 
163-186.) 

1.  Life. 

a.  Early  period :   born  in  Moravia,  studied  at  university 

of  Nassau  (1611-1613). 

b.  Period  as  educator :    master  of  Latin  school  at  Prerau 

(1614-1616)  — pastor  at  Fulneck  (1616)  —  ban- 
ished with  other  Protestants  (1624)  —  master  of 
school  at  Lissa,  Poland  (1628) — engaged  in 
study  and  writing  —  impressed  by  work  of 
Bacon  —  wrote  The  Gate  of  Tongues  Unlocked 
and  The  Great  Didactic  (1628-1632) — invited 
to  reform  schools  of  Sweden  (1638). 

c.  Period  as  traveler  and  writer :  visited  England,  Sweden, 

and  Hungary  (1641-1642)  —  conducted  model 
school  at  Saros-Patak  (1650-1654)  —  returned  to 
Lissa  —  called  to  presidency  of  Harvard  univer- 
sity (1654) — wrote  Orbis  Pictus  (1657)  —  re- 
mainder of  life  devoted  to  teaching  and  writing. 

2.  Books  on  Education. 

a.  Didactica  magna  (the  Great  Didactic). 

(i)  Principles  of  teaching,  theories  on  education,  views 
on  organization  of  schools. 

b.  Janua  linguarum  reserata  (the  Gate  of  Tongues  Un- 

locked), 
(i)  New  method  of  learning  languages. 


no  Outlines  of  the  History  of  Education 

(2)  Thousands   of   common  Latin  words   referring   to 

familiar  objects,  with  their  vernacular  equiva- 
lents in  parallel  columns. 

(3)  These  to  be  arranged  in  sentences  from  simple  to 

more  complex. 

(4)  Vocabulary  and  writing  knowledge  of  Latin. 

(5)  Encyclopedic  survey  of  knowledge. 

(6)  Was  translated  into  many  languages. 

c.  Texts  related  to  the  "  Gate." 

(1)  Vestibulum,  an  introductory  text. 

(2)  Artrium,  an  expansion  of  the  "  Gate." 

(3)  Thesaurus,  summary  of  Latin  literature. 

d.  Orbis  sensualium  pictus  (the  World  of  Sensible  Things 

Pictured). 

(1)  Adaptation  of  the  Janua,  illustrated  with  pictures. 

(2)  First  illustrated  textbook  for  children. 

(3)  New  method  of  dealing  with  things. 

(4)  Method  of  induction  leading  to  generalized  knowl- 

edge. 

3.  Aim  of  education. 

a.  Religious  and  moral. 

(1)  End  of  man  is  happiness  with  God. 

(2)  Control  of  self,  attained  by  knowledge  of  self  and 

all  things. 

(3)  Knowledge,  virtue,  piety. 

4.  Method  of  education. 

a.  According  to  nature. 

b.  By  arrangement  of  facts  on  universal  principles. 

(1)  On  basis  of  known  to  unknown,  leading  to  attain- 

ment of  all  knowledge. 

(2)  Each  fact  to  lead  to  the  next. 

(3)  Sense  perception  the  source  of  knowledge. 


Modern  Ediication  in 

5.  Organization  of  schools. 

a.  Infant  or  mother  school :   1-6  years. 

(i)  Language,  the  senses,  religion,  morals. 

b.  Elementary  or  vernacular  school :  7-1 2  years. 

(i)  Mother    tongue,    drawing,    arithmetic,    catechism, 
singing,  history,  geography,  and  government. 

c.  Latin  school  or  gymnasium:   13-18  years. 

(i)   Latin  grammar,  rhetoric,  logic,  ethics,  arithmetic, 
geometry,  physics,  astronomy,  geography,  music. 

d.  University :   19-24  years. 

(i)  Advanced  courses  in  all  departments  of  learning. 

6.  Educational  principles. 

a.  Development  of  the  whole  man. 

b.  Follow  the  order  of  nature. 

(1)  Gradation :  known  to  unknown,  simple  to  complex, 

concrete  to  abstract. 

(2)  Good  foundation :  mother  tongue  first. 

(3)  Adaptation. 

(4)  Correlation. 

(5)  Comprehension  before  memorizing. 

c.  Words  and  things  together. 

(i)  Use  of  objects  and  pictures. 

d.  Language  to  be  learned  by  use,  not  by  rules, 
(i)  Learn  by  doing. 

e.  Experience  not  authority, 
(i)   Sense  perception  first. 

/.  Train  for  character. 

(1)  The  teacher  an  example. 

(2)  Religion  important. 
g.  Agreeable  methods. 

h.  Few  studies. 

i.  Both  sexes  included. 


H2  Outlines  of  the  History  of  Education 

t 

7.  Criticisms  of  Comenius. 

a.  Contributed  greatly  to  educational  theory. 

(1)  Urged   universal,   compulsory   education   for   both 

sexes. 

(2)  Outlined    methods    and    principles    which    greatly 

aided  later  efforts  in  education. 

(3)  Emphasized  the  necessity  of  early  training  in  sense 

perception   to  precede   the  development  of   the 
higher  mental  powers. 

b.  Improved  textbooks. 

c.  Prepared  the  way  for  the  kindergarten. 

d.  Showed  the  need  and  value  of  school  organization  by  a 

definite  plan. 

e.  Overestimated  the  importance  of  knowledge. 

/.   Undervalued  the  literature  and  knowledge  of  the  past. 

John  Locke  (1632-1704)  —  Education  as  a  Discipline 

(Barnard :  Germ.  Trs.  6s  Educators,  428-440,  Journ.  of  Educ., 
v.  6,  210-222,  v.  n,  460-484;  Browning:  Educ.  Theories, 
118-134;  Compayre:  Hist.  Fed.,  194-211;  Davidson:  Hist. 
Educ.,  197-209 ;  Graves :  Gt.  Educators  of  Three  Centuries, 
52-66;  Hailman:  Hist.  Fed.,  63-73;  Kemp:  Hist.  Educ., 
218-221;  Locke:  Some  Thoughts  on  Education  (Cambridge 
Univ.  Press),  On  the  Conduct  of  Understanding  (Maynard, 
N.  Y.),  An  Essay  on  the  Human  Understanding  (Tegg,  Lon- 
don) ;  Misawa :  Mod.  Educators,  35-58  ;  Monroe  :  Text-Bk. 
in  Hist.  Educ.,  512-523,  Brief  Course,  261-266;  Munroe: 
Educ.  Ideal,  95-123;  Painter:  Hist.  Educ.,  ist  ed.,  213-223, 
2d  ed.,  230-238,  Fed.  Essays,  278-290;  Quick:  Educ.  Reform- 
ers, 219-238;  Russell:  Germ.  Higher  Schs.,  73-74,  161-171; 
Seeley:  Hist.  Educ.,  220-223;  Williams:  Hist.  Mod.  Educ., 
202-208.) 


Modern  Education  113 

Life. 

a.  Educated  at  Westminster  and  Oxford. 

b.  Studied  medicine,  traveled,  wrote,  held  political  office. 

c.  Works  on  education. 

(1)  Some  Thoughts  concerning  Education. 

(2)  Conduct  of  the  Understanding. 

(3)  Essay  concerning  the  Human  Understanding. 
Aim. 

a.  To  train  gentlemen's  sons  for  their  position  in  life. 

b.  To  provide  means  for  formation  of  habits. 

c.  To  train  the  "  faculties." 

(i)  The  process  of  learning  more  important  than  the 
thing  learned. 

d.  To  attain  to  virtue,  wisdom,  breeding,  and  learning. 
Theory  of  mind. 

a.  Mind  a  blank  at  start. 

b.  Knowledge  comes  from  the  perception  of  the  senses. 

c.  Virtues  and  powers  are  developed  in  the  mind  from  out- 

side through  formation  of  habits. 

d.  Hence  education  can  shape  pupil  according  to  will  of 

teacher. 
Method. 

a.  Rigid  discipline  of  faculties  and  of  body. 

b.  Tutor  rather  than  school. 

c.  Example. 

d.  Travel. 

e.  Gentleness. 

/.   Objective  through  senses. 
g.  Conversation. 
h.  No  learning  by  heart. 
Intellectual  education, 
a.  Significance. 


ii4  Outlines  of  the  History  of  Education 

(1)  Training  or  discipline  of  the  intellect. 

(2)  Emphasis  on  the  process  of  learning. 

(3)  Development  of  the  powers  of  the  mind. 

(4)  Knowledge  of  secondary  importance. 

b.  Purpose. 

(1)  Formation  of  habit  of  thought. 

(2)  Not  variety  of  knowledge  but  of  thinking. 

(3)  For  practical  life  not  for  letters  or  science. 

c.  Program  of  studies. 

(1)  Mother  tongue,  modern  language,   Latin   through 

use,  and  no  Greek. 

(2)  Geography,  astronomy,  arithmetic,  geometry,  his- 

tory. 

(3)  Ethics,  common  law,  and  physical  science. 

(4)  Bookkeeping  and  a  trade. 

d.  Extent. 

(1)  Not  universal. 

(2)  For  higher  classes  chiefly. 

(3)  Working  schools  for  laboring  classes. 
6.  Moral  education. 

a.  Aim. 

(i)  Virtue,  good  moral  habits,  character. 

b.  Principles  of  moral  discipline. 

(1)  Appeal  to  the  sentiment  of  honor. 
(a)  Duty  and  shame. 

(2)  Self-denial  and  self-mastery. 

(a)  Schooling  of  desires  to  control  of  reason  through 
habit. 

(3)  Rewards  and  punishments  on  the  basis  of  esteem 

and  disgrace. 

(a)  No  corporal  punishment  except  in  extreme  cases 
of  stubbornness  and  disobedience. 


Modern  Education  115 

(b)  Praise  openly. 

(c)  Censure  privately. 

(d)  Reason  with  pupil. 

7.  Physical  education. 

a.  Hardening  process  or  discipline. 

(1)  Resistance  to  elements. 

(2)  Attention  to  food,  clothes,  etc. 

b.  Habits  of  exercise. 

(1)  For  endurance. 

(2)  For  vigorous  constitution. 

c.  "  A  sound  mind  in  a  sound  body,"  the  fundamental 

maxim. 

8.  Influence  of  Locke. 

a.  Strengthened  the  doctrine  of  "  formal  discipline  "    in 

modern  education. 

(1)  Training  involved  in  the  study  of  a  subject  more 

important  than  the  information  inculcated. 

(2)  Determined  much  of  the  practice  in  choice  of  method 

and  subject  matter  in  the  schools  of  England, 
Germany,  and  America. 

b.  Seen  especially  in  work  of  Rousseau. 

(i)  Idea  of  education  as  development  and  growth. 

SOME  EARLY  EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY  MOVEMENTS  AND 
EDUCATORS 

Pietism  and  Hermann  Francke 

(Barnard,  Germ.  Trs.  &•  Educators,  441-458,  Journ.  of  Educ., 
v.  5,  441-459,  689-699 ;  Bolton :  Sec.  Sch.  Syst.  of  Germany, 
82;  Compayre:  Hist.  Fed.,  414;  Graves:  Gt.  Educators  of 
Three  Centuries,  67-76;  Kemp:  Hist.  Educ.,  235-240;  Mon- 
roe: Text-Bk.  in  Hist.  Educ.,  498,  501,  722,  Brief  Course, 


n6  Outlines  of  the  History  of  Education 

249 ;  Painter :   Hist.  Editc.,  ist  ed.,  239-247  ;  Russell :  Germ. 
Higher  Schs.,  63-65;  Williams:   Hist.  Mod.  Educ.,  260-275.) 

Pietism 

1.  Term  of  reproach. 

2.  Movement  of  Lutheran  church  against  prevailing  state  of 

religion. 

a.  Fervor  of  Reformation  gone. 

b.  Divisions  and  heresies. 

c.  Religion  a  matter  of  theological  definition  and  theory. 

d.  Piety  a  secondary  matter. 

e.  Religion   mixed   up   with   political   intrigue   and   per- 

secution. 

3.  Effort  to  make  religion  a  matter  of  heart  and  daily  life. 

4.  Influence  of  Philip  Spener. 

Francke  (1663-1727) 
i.  Life. 

a.  Well  educated   at   Erfurt,    Kiel,    and   Leipsic   univer- 

sities. 

(1)  Studied    theology,    metaphysics,    natural    science, 

history,  and  ancient  languages. 

(2)  Intellectualist. 

(3)  Inspired  with  new  fervor  by  Spener. 

b.  Lecturer  and  teacher. 

(1)  Theology  at  Leipsic. 

(2)  Languages  at  Halle. 

c.  Philanthropist. 

(1)  Instructed  the  poor  in  his  home. 

(2)  Founded  school. 

(3)  Enlisted  college  students  as  instructors. 

(4)  Enlarged  work  through  subscription. 


Modern  Education  117 

(a)  Many  students. 

(b)  Buildings  and  apparatus. 
Educational  foundations. 

a.  Orphan  House.  > 

b.  Free  table  for  indigent  pupils. 

c.  Burgher  school  —  primary  grade. 

d.  Latin  school  of  the  Orphan  House. 

(1)  Secondary  school  to  prepare  for  the  university. 

(2)  Four  hundred  pupils. 

e.  Pedagogium. 

(1)  Secondary  school  for  higher  classes. 

(2)  Extensive  scientific  and  industrial  equipment. 
/.   Drug  store. 

g.  Bookstore. 

h.  Institution  for  women. 

Other  activities. 

a.  Pastor  of  church. 

b.  Director  of  printing  office. 

(i)  Before  1800  issued  one  million  copies  of  the  New 
Testament  and  a  million  and  a  half  copies 
of  the  Bible. 

c.  Founder  of  mission  in  India. 

d.  Trained  teachers. 
Spirit  of  the  man. 

a.  Piety  the  basis  of  all  work  and  the  essential  thing  in 

education. 

6.  Education  should  relate  to  vocation, 
(i)  Practical  and  utilitarian. 

c.  Recognized  the  differences  of  pupils. 

d.  Advocated. 

(1)  Physical  exercises  and  games-  ^ 

(2)  Mechanical  and  industrial  employments.  ^ 


n8  Outlines  of  the  History  of  Education 

5.  Rules  to  teachers. 

a.  Rely  upon  God. 

b.  Discipline  through  confidence,  gentleness,  and  love. 

c.  Cultivate  self-control  and  cheerfulness. 

d.  Inflict  no  penalty  for  lack  of  comprehension. 

e.  Be  firm  but  not  harsh. 

/.  Reason  with  older  pupils. 

g.  Study  dispositions  and  inspire  pupils  to  do  their  best. 

Frangois  Fenelon  (1651-1715) — the  Education  of  Girls 

(Barnard:  Journ.  of  Educ.,  v.  13,  '477-494,  v.  30,  481-490; 
Compayre:  Hist.  Fed.,  164-186;  Kemp:  Hist.  Educ.,  221- 
224;  Munroe:  Educ.  Ideal,  147-152;  Painter:  Hist.  Educ., 
ist  ed.,  227-234,  Fed.  Essays,  291-302;  Williams:  Hist. 
Mod.  Educ.,  ch.  8.) 

1.  Life. 

a.  Well-educated  priest  at  the  age  of  24. 

b.  Head  of  girls'  school. 

c.  Fluent  writer. 

(1)  The  Education  of  Girls. 

(2)  Collection  of  Fables. 

(3)  Dialogues  of  the  Dead. 

(4)  Telemaque. 

d.  Tutor  of  Duke  of  Burgundy. 

e.  Archbishop  of  Cambray. 

2.  Theories  of  education  for  girls. 

a.  Necessary,  because 

(1)  Women  weaker  than  men. 

(2)  Their  duties  the  foundation  of  all  human  life. 

(3)  A  preventive  of  idle  and  objectional  life. 

b.  Scope. 


Modern  Education  119 

(1)  Reading,   writing,   grammar,   ancient  and   modern 

history,  good  literature,  accounts,  government,  and 
fine  arts. 

(2)  To  exclude  women  from  law,  ministry,  and  politics. 
3.  Methods  of  education. 

a.  Begin  early. 

(1)  Consider  plasticity  of  mind. 

(2)  Form  body,  mind,  and  character  at  impressionable 

age. 

b.  Take  advantage  of  curiosity. 

(i)  Study  the  objects  themselves. 

c.  Make  instruction  indirect. 

(1)  A  source  of  pleasure. 

(2)  A  means  of  discipline. 

d.  Give  moral  instruction  through  history  and  fables, 
(i)  Cf.  modern  story  methods  of  teaching. 

Charles  Rollin  (1661-1741)  —  School  Management 

(Barnard:  Journ.  of  Educ.,  v.  23,  17-46;  Compayre:  Hist. 
Fed.,  232-252  ;  Kemp  :  Hist.  Educ.,  248-249 ;  Painter :  Hist. 
Educ.,  ist  ed.,  234-239,  Fed.  Essays,  303-320;  Williams: 
Hist.  Mod.  Educ.,  281-290.) 

i.  Life. 

a.  Highly  educated  at  College  du  Plessis  and  at  Paris, 
(i)  Literary  and  theological  studies. 

b.  Educator,  fifty  years. 

(1)  1688,  Chair  of  eloquence :  College  Royal  de  France. 

(2)  1694,  Rector  of  University  of  Paris ;  again  in  1720. 

(3)  1699,  Rector  of  College  de  Beauvais. 

c.  Writer. 


I2O  Outlines  of  the  History  of  Education 

(1)  Traiti  des  £tudes. 

(2)  Histoire  Ancienne. 

2.  Special  features  of  his  plan  of  education. 

a.  Emphasis  on 

(1)  Study  of  things. 

(2)  Use  of  the  vernacular. 

(3)  History. 

b.  Intelligent  and  humane  treatment  of  pupils. 

c.  Little  Latin  and  Greek. 

d.  Much  attention  to  plants  and  animals. 

e.  Religious  and  spiritual  education  important. 

3.  Pedagogical  principles. 

a.  Adaptation  to  individual  differences  of  pupils. 

b.  Make  study  pleasant. 

(1)  Combine  gentleness  with  force. 

(2)  Encourage  those  who  do  well. 

(3)  Rewards  valuable  if  given  in  moderation. 

c.  Make  discipline  intelligent  and  reasonable. 

(1)  Never  punish  in  anger. 

(2)  Punish  for  correction. 

(3)  Too  frequent  reprimand  is  futile. 

(4)  The  rod  dangerous  if  not  in  moderation. 

(5)  Obstinacy  alone  deserves  severe  treatment. 

(6)  Avoid  resentment  of  pupils  by  harshness. 

(7)  Authority  not  to  displace  reason. 

d.  Teacher's  example  of  greatest  influence  in  moral  instruc- 

tion. 


Modern  Education  121 

EDUCATION  ACCORDING  TO  NATURE 

Jean  Jacques  Rousseau  (1712-1778)  —  Individualism 

(Barnard  :  Germ.  Trs.  and  Educators,  459-486,  Journ.  of  Educ., 
v.  5,  459-486;  Browning:  Educ.  Theories,  152-169;  Com- 
payre:  Hist.  Ped.,  278-310;  Davidson:  Hist.  Educ.,  211- 
219,  Rousseau  6*  Educ.  according  to  Nature;  Encycl.  Brit., 
art.  on  Rousseau ;  Graves :  Gt.  Educators  of  Three  Centuries, 
77-111 ;  Hailman:  Hist.  Ped.,  74-84;  Hoyt:  Studies  in  Hist. 
Educ.,  48-71;  Kemp:  Hist.  Educ.,  255-264;  Misawa:  Mod. 
Educators,  59-92 ;  Monroe :  Text-Bk.  in  Hist.  Educ.,  547- 
575,  Brief  Course,  280-296;  Munroe :  Educ.  Ideal,  153-178; 
Painter:  Hist.  Educ.,  ist  ed.,  249-255,  2d  ed.,  265-274,  Ped. 
Essays,  321-339;  Payne:  Lects.  on  Hist.  Educ.,  89-91; 
Quick :  Educ.  Refs.,  239-272 ;  Rousseau :  Emile  (ed.  Payne, 
Appleton,  also  Extracts,  ed.  Steeg,  Heath) ;  Russell :  Germ. 
Higher  Schs.,  61-75  5  Seeley  :  Hist.  Educ.,  241-249 ;  Williams : 
Hist.  Mod.  Educ.,  290-309.) 

i.  Conditions  of  society  in  which  Rousseau   developed  his 
philosophy  of  life  and  of  education. 

a.  Social  classes. 

(1)  Privileged  classes  of  monarchy,  nobility,  and  clergy. 

(a)  Absolutism. 

(b)  Suppression  of  individual  judgment. 

(c)  Corruption  and  injustice. 

(2)  Crushing  burdens  of  non-privileged  classes, 
(a)  Feudal  conditions. 

(&)  Taxation. 

(c)  No  provision  for  intellectual  and  spiritual  needs. 

b.  Government. 


122  Outlines  of  the  History  of  Education 

(1)  Centralized  tyrannical  monarchy. 

(2)  Oppression. 

(3)  Inefficiency  and  bankruptcy. 

c.  New  school  of  men  of  letters  and  their  influence. 

(1)  Voltaire  :    Essays;   Montesquieu  :    Esprit  des  Lois; 

Morelly:   Code  de  la  Nature;    Diderot:   En- 
cyclopedia; Rousseau  :  Control  Social. 

(2)  Skepticism,  philosophic  liberalism,  rationalism. 

(a)  Freedom  of  thought,  liberty  of  conscience,  suffi- 

ciency of  the  reason. 
(&)  "Nature." 
(c)  Social  contract  and  inequality. 

(3)  Concentrated  attacks  on  Church. 

(a)  Decline  of  ecclesiastical  authority. 
(6)  Development  of  individual  judgment  and  intelli- 
gence. 

(4)  Improvement  of  masses. 
2.  Life  of  Rousseau  (1712-1778). 

a.  Son  of  watchmaker  of  Geneva. 

(1)  Delicate,  studious,  emotional,  addicted  to  bad  litera- 

ture —  brought  up  by  aunt. 

(2)  Apprenticed  to  engraver  (1724-1728)  —  led  life  of 

deceit. 

(3)  Left  home  as  vagabond  (1728-1741). 

b.  In  Paris,  and  secretary  to  ambassador  at  Venice. 

(1)  Dissolute  life. 

(2)  Dijon  Academy  prize  essay  :    Influence  of  Arts  and 

Sciences  (1749). 

(3)  Origin  of  Inequality,  discussion  of  his  social  doctrine 


c.  In  Montmorency,  writer. 

(i)  The  New  Heloise,  first  educational  essay  (1759). 


Modern  Education  123 

(2)  The  Social  Contract,  protest  against  the  social  con- 

ditions (1762). 

(3)  Emile,  exposition  of  his  theory  of  education  (1762). 

(4)  Confessions,  his  autobiography  (1766). 

d.  In  exile,  after  stortn  caused  by  the  Emile. 

(i)  Wanderer  through  Switzerland,  England,  and  France. 

e.  Died  at  Ermenonville  (1778). 

(i)  His  ashes  removed  to  Paris  and  placed  in  the  Pan- 
theon (1793). 
Purpose  and  spirit  of  his  writings. 

a.  Protest  against  the  prevailing  effects  of  civilization  and 

culture. 

b.  Emphasis  upon  freedom  of  development  through  direct 

experience  and  "  according  to  nature,"  un- 
hampered by  tradition  and  custom. 

c.  Belief  in  the  worth  of  the  common  man. 

(1)  The  beginnings  of  modern  democracy. 

(2)  Contributed  to  the  French  Revolution. 

(3)  Similar  belief  expressed  in  the  American  Declaration 

of  Independence. 

d.  Sympathy  with  child  life. 

The  Emile  or  education  according  to  nature, 
a.  Meaning  of  nature. 

(1)  Habit  or  primary  disposition,  not  acquired  by  direct 

imitation. 

(a)  Hence  natural  instincts  or  first  impressions  are 
more  trustworthy  than  experience. 

(2)  Man  governed  by  the  laws  of  his  own  nature, 
(a)  Not  consistent  with  the  laws  of  society. 

(3)  Contact  with  the  phenomena  of  nature. 

(a)  To  counter  the  evil  influences  of  association  with 
others. 


124  Outlines  of  the  History  of  Education 

b.  Conception  of  negative  education. 

(1)  Permitting  the  free  development  of  the  child  ac- 

cording to  his  own  nature. 

(2)  Guarding  him  from  evil  influences. 

(3)  Withholding  direct  instruction. 

(4)  Training  the  senses  as  a  preparation  for  the  reason 

later. 

(5)  Applied  to  physical  education. 

(a)  Great  freedom  in  the  country. 

(b)  Simple  life. 

(6)  Applied  to  intellectual  education. 

(a)  Little  instruction  before  the  age  of  twelve. 

(b)  No  reading,  working,  or  reasoning. 

(7)  Applied  to  moral  education. 

(a)  Doctrine  of  natural  consequences. 

(b)  Lacks  motive  and  idea  of  duty. 

(c)  Calls  for  power  of  reasoning  which  the  pupil  has 

not  yet  acquired. 

c.  Education  divided  into  periods,   according  to  pupil's 

aptitude  or  development. 

(1)  Age  :   1-5  years. 

(a)  Father,  teacher  —  mother,  nurse. 

(b)  Physical  training :  games. 

(c)  Little  instruction  and  moral  training. 

(2)  Age:  6-12  years. 

(a)  Negative. 

(b)  Following  law  of  natural  consequences. 

(c)  Still  no  direct  intellectual  training. 

(d)  Natural   training   of   senses   through   observa- 

tion. 

(3)  Age:   13-15  years. 

(a)  Gaining  of  knowledge. 


Modern  Education  125 

x.  Through  curiosity. 
y.  Robinson  Crusoe,  a  typical  textbook. 
(b)  Trade  to  be  learned. 
(4)  Age  :   16-20  years. 

(a)  Training  of  the  emotions. 
x.  Social  relationships. 

y.  Love  for  others. 

(b)  Moral  and  religious  instruction. 

(c)  Adolescence  emphasized  for  the  first  time. 
Education  of  women. 

a.  Relative  to  men  and  their  needs. 

b.  Physical  first,  amusements,  gentleness,  docility,  religion, 

study  of  men,  household  duties. 
Effect  of  Rousseau's  work. 

a.  Lay  bare  defects  and  abuses  in  education. 

b.  Stimulated  minds  and  promoted  educational  literature. 

c.  Made  the  child  the  important  factor  in  education. 

(1)  Training  to  be  adapted  to  age. 

(2)  Nature  and  growth  to  determine  the  process. 

(3)  Experience  to  determine  the  means. 

d.  Led  to  conception  of  education  as  a  process. 

(1)  A  development  which  lasts  through  life. 

(2)  An  expansion  of  natural  powers. 

(3)  Making  sympathy  with  child  therefore  an  essential 

of  the  educative  process. 

e.  Used  instinctive  tendencies  as  starting  point  in  educa- 

tion. 
/.   Turned  attention  to  nature  and  the  "  natural  state  "  of 

man. 
g.  Did  much  to  prepare  the  way  for  modern  educational 

development, 
(i)  Cf.  the  work  of  Pestalozzi,  Herbart,  and  Froebel. 


126  Outlines  of  the  History  of  Education 

Johann  Bernard  Basedow  (1723-1790) :  the  Philanthropinum 

(Barnard :  Germ.  Trs.  &•  Educators,  487-520,  Journ.  of  Educ., 
v.  5,  487-520 ;  Graves  :  Gt.  Educators  of  Three  Centuries,  112- 
121  ;  Kemp:  Hist.  Educ.,  265-269;  Misawa:  Mod.  Educators, 
93-97;  Monroe:  Text-Bk.  in  Hist.  Educ.,  577-583,  Brief 
Course,  297-300;  Painter:  Hist.  Educ.,  ist  ed.,  256-261,  2d 
ed.,  274-279 ;  Payne :  Lects.  on  Hist.  Educ.,  91-96 ;  Quick : 
Educ.  Refs.,  273-289;  Seeley:  Hist.  Educ.,  250-256;  Wil- 
liams: Hist.  Mod.  Educ.,  318-329.) 

1.  His  character  and  work. 

a.  Talented  but  unstable. 

b.  Studied  for  Lutheran  ministry,  but  was  not  ordained  be- 

cause not  orthodox. 

c.  Tutor  (1746-1753). 

d.  Professor  in  Danish  Academy  (1753-1761). 

e.  Professor  at  Antona  (1761-1771)  —  dismissed  for  unor- 

thodox views. 

/.  Issued  many  publications,  inspired  by  reading  Rous- 
seau's works. 

2.  His  writings. 

a.  Address   to   philanthropists   and   men  of  property  on 

schools  and  studies  and  their  influence  on  public 
welfare  (1768). 

b.  Book  on  methods,  based  upon  the  methods  of  experience 

(1770). 

^c.  Elementary  work :  resembling  the  Orbis  Pictus  of  Co- 
menius,  and  following  the  ideas  of  Bacon,  Come- 
nius,  and  Rousseau. 

(i)  Conversational  exercises  on  natural  phenomena  and 
forces,  with  illustrations. 


Modern  Education  127 

(2)  Began  a  wholly  new  literature  for  children,  based 

upon  children's  character,  interests,  and  needs. 
His  Philanthropinum  (1774). 

a.  School  founded  at  Dessau  to  illustrate  his  principles. 

b.  Aims. 

(1)  To  educate  youth  according  to  nature. 

(2)  To  train  rich  and  poor  together. 

(3)  To  train  former  for  leadership  in  social  life  and  the 

latter  to  teach. 

c.  Theories. 

(1)  Children  to  be  treated  as  children  not  as  adults, 

hence  adaptation  to  capacity. 

(2)  Conversational    methods    of    teaching    languages 

(through  medium  of  mother  tongue) . 
(a)  Aided  by  games,  pictures,  and  models. 

(3)  Training  of  the  senses  through  object  lessons  and 

use  of  environment. 

(4)  Physical  exercises  and  play  necessary  for  natural 

development. 

(5)  Manual  training  desirable  for  both  educational  and 

social  reasons. 

(6)  Learning  should  not  be  made  painful. 

d.  Subject  matter  taught. 

(i)  Man,    animals,    trees    and    plants,    mathematics 
(arithmetic,    geometry,    trigonometry),    drawing, 
French,  German,  geography,  physics,  chemistry, 
astronomy,  religion. 
Influence  of  his  work. 

a.  Widely  felt  in  German  education. 

b.  Literature  for  children  spread. 

(i)  Campe   (1746-1818),   the   most  noted   follower   of 
Basedow,  was  the  author  of  Robinson  der  J  linger  e, 


128  Outlines  of  the  History  of  Education 

from   which    Wyss   modeled   his   Swiss   Family 
Robinson. 

c.  Training  of  teachers  improved. 

d.  Greater  emphasis  upon  object  lessons. 

e.  Introduction  of  trades  into  German  system  of  schools. 
/.   Closer  connection  between  outdoor  life  and  instruction. 


EDUCATION  BASED  ON  PSYCHOLOGY 

John  Henry  Pestalozzi  (1746-1827) — the  Beginnings  of 
Method  in  Education 

(Barnard:  Journ.  of  Educ.,  v.  3,  401-416,  v.  4,  65-126,  343- 
358,  v.  5,  161-186,  v.  6,  169-179,  v.  7,  153-159,  285-318, 
503-729,  v.  10,  81-92,  v.  16,  76S-776,  v.  30,  561-572,  v.  31, 
35-60;  Browning:  Educ.  Theories,  170-185;  Compayre : 
Hist.  Fed.,  417-445;  Davidson:  Hist.  Educ.,  229-235;  De 
Guimps :  P.,  His  Life  &  Wk.,  1-432  ;  Encycl.  Brit.,  art.  on 
Pestalozzi;  Gill :  Systs.  of  Educ.,  ch.  2  ;  Graves  :  Gt.  Educators 
of  Three  Centuries,  122-166;  Hailman:  Hist.  Fed.,  92-113; 
Hoyt:  Studies  in  Hist.  Educ.,  72-96;  Johonnot:  Prins.  &• 
Pract.  of  Teaching  (see  index) ;  Kemp  :  Hist.  Educ.,  282-291 ; 
Krusi:  Life  &•  Wks.  of  P.;  Misawa:  Mod.  Educators,  116- 
142  ;  Monroe :  Text-Bk.  in  Hist.  Educ.,  587-622,  Brief  Course, 
307-319;  Munroe:  Educ.  Ideal,  179-195;  Painter:  Hist. 
Educ.,  ist  ed.,  266-278,  2d  ed.,  295-306,  Ped.  Essays,  351- 
368;  Payne:  Lects.  on  Hist.  Educ.,  97-114;  Pestalozzi: 
Leonard  &*  Gertrude  (ed.  Channing,  Heath),  How  Gertrude 
teaches  Her  Children  (Bardeen) ;  Pinloche :  P.  6*  the  Mod. 
Elem.  Sch.;  Quick:  Educ.  Refs.,  290-383;  Seeley:  Hist. 
Educ.,  257-271;  Williams:  Hist.  Mod.  Educ.,  330-349.) 


Modern  Education  129 

Growth  and  meaning  of  the  psychological  conception  of 
education. 

a.  Started  with  naturalistic  movement,  which  referred  to 

method  as  it  grows  out  of  the  nature  of  the 
child. 

b.  Was  an  elaboration  of  the  naturalistic  conception. 

(1)  Education  not  an  artificial  procedure  but  a  natural 

process  of  growth  from  within. 

(2)  Education  a  development  or  organic  growth,  sub- 

ject to  the  methods  of  instruction  employed. 

c.  Established  the  truths  that 

(1)  Scientific  study  of  the  mind  would  make  possible 

more  accurate  interpretation  of  human  nature. 

(2)  The  processes  of  instruction  could  be  formulated  from 

the  results  of  such  study. 

d.  Improved  educational  practices. 

(1)  Better  methods  of  instruction, 
(a)  Based  upon  laws  of  the  mind. 

(2)  New  spirit  in  instruction. 

(a)  Sympathy  for  pupil. 

(b)  Consideration  of  his  activities,  needs,  interests, 

and  abilities. 

(3)  More  attention  to  character  and  training  of  teachers. 

(4)  Truer  conception  of  the  nature  of  education. 

(a)  Elementary  instruction  received  new  attention. 
(6)  Universal  education  seen  to  be  possible. 
Life  of  Pestalozzi  (1746-1827). 

a.  Early  training  by  his  mother. 

(i)  Source  of  his  emphasis  upon  the  importance  of  love 
and  sympathy  in  instruction. 

b.  Social  reformer   as   minister  and  lawyer   (1760-1764), 

farmer  (1765),  and  teacher  (1774). 


130  Outlines  of  the  History  of  Education 

c.  Educational  reformer. 

(1)  School  and  home  for  beggars  at  Neuhof  (1774-1780). 

(2)  Period  of  literary  activity  (1780-1801). 

(3)  Orphan  school  at  Stanz  (1789-1799). 

(4)  School  at  Burgdorf  (1799-1805). 

(5)  Yverdun  Institute  (1805-1825). 

3.  His  chief  writings. 

a.  Evening  Hour  of  a  Hermit  (1780). 

b.  Leonard  and  Gertrude  (1781). 

c.  The  Fables  (1797). 

d.  How  Gertrude  teaches  Her  Children  (1801). 

e.  The  A.  B.  C.  of  Sense  Perception  (1801). 
/.   The  Book  for  Mothers  ( 1 801) . 

g.  The  Song  of  the  Dying  Swan  (1826). 

4.  His  purpose. 

a.  To  improve  the  poorer  classes  by  education  and  labor. 

b.  To  make  elementary  education  universal. 

c.  To  prove  that  education  is  "  the  natural  development  of 

inherent  powers  and  capacities." 

5.  His  educational  doctrine. 

a.  Education  is  a  process  of  organic  growth. 

(1)  Moral  culture :  the  unfolding  of  the  will  through  love 

and  confidence. 

(2)  Intellectual  culture:    the  unfolding  of  the  reason 

through   exercise,    based   upon   clearness   of 
perception  and  thought. 

(3)  Physical  culture:   the  development  of  the  physical 

powers  through  use,  for  power  and  technical 
skill. 

b.  All  education  and  instruction  should  be  founded  upon  a 

knowledge  of  the  natural  laws  of  development 
of  the  mind. 


Modern  Education  131 

(1)  Sense  perception  is  the  basis  of  knowledge. 

(a)  Hence  instruction  begins  with  the  immediate 
experience. 

(6)  What  is  experienced  and  observed  must  be  con- 
nected with  language. 

(2)  Tuition  must  keep  pace  with  development. 

(a)  Impressions  to  be  commensurate  with  the  growth 
of  the  faculties. 

(3)  Subject  matter  of  instruction  must  be  graded. 

(a)  From  simple  to  complex,  from  concrete  to  ab- 
stract, from  near  to  remote,  from  known  to 
unknown,  from  particular  to  general. 

c.  To  develop  mental  power  is  more  the  object  of  elemen- 
tary instruction  than  to  furnish  information. 

</.  The  school  and  home  must  cooperate  to  promote  the 
child's  development. 

e.  The  means  of  instruction  are  number,  form,  and  lan- 
guage. 
6.  Methods  of  application  of  his  principles. 

a.  By  sense  experience  made  clear  by  observation  and  re- 

flection. 

(1)  Object  lessons. 

(2)  Pictures,  models,  etc. 

(3)  Doing. 

b.  By  inspiring  spontaneous  self-activity  as  the  essential 

to  power  and  independence. 

c.  By  using  the  immediate  environment  and  the  ordinary 

vocations  as  means  of  instruction. 

d.  By  connecting  number,  form,  and  language  with  every- 

day activities  and  objects. 

e.  By  providing  facilities  and  opportunities  for  self-expres- 

sion. 


132  Outlines  of  the  History  of  Education 

7.  Results  of  the  work  of  Pestalozzi. 

a.  New  object  of  instruction :    to  develop  rather  than  to 

teach. 

b.  Education  recognized  as  the  primary  means  of  elevating 

society. 

1 i)  Hence  the  duty  and  affair  of  the  State  to  provide  for  it. 

(2)  And  the  child  is  seen  to  be  the  important  factor  in 

education. 

c.  Education  an  individual  matter  and  must  be  a  natural 

harmonious  development. 

d.  Extended  the  popularity  of  object  teaching,  nature  study, 

and  sense  training. 

e.  Created  new  spirit  in  schoolroom. 

/.  Contributed  to  development  of  the  kindergarten  and  the 
modern  American  normal  school. 

g.  Promoted  scientific  study  of  the  mind  and  its  processes 
of  learning. 

h.  Improved  methods  of  instruction. 

i.  Led  to  establishment  of  schools  for  defectives  and  trades 
schools. 

John  Frederick  Herbart  (1776-1841)  —  the  Science  of 
Education 

(Adams:  Herbartian  Psych.  Appl.  to  Educ.;  Browning: 
Educ.  Theories,  195-202;  Davidson:  Hist.  Educ.,  232-235; 
De  Garmo  :  Herbart  &•  the  Herbartians,  2-98  ;  Encycl.  Brit., 
art.  on  Herbart;  Graves :  Gt.  Educators  of  Three  Centuries, 
167-193  ;  Hailman :  Hist.  Fed.,  84  ff. ;  Herbart :  Pestalozzi's 
Idea  of  an  A  B  C  of  Sense  Perception  (ed.  Eckoff,  Appleton), 
Text-Bk.  in  Psych.  (Appleton),  Outlines  of  Educ.  Doctrine  (ed. 
Lange  &  De  Garmo,  Macmillan) ;  Hoyt :  Studies  in  Hist. 


Modern  Education  133 

Educ.,  97-122;  Kemp:  Hist.  Educ.,  298-301;  Misawa  : 
Mod.  Educators,  199-222;  Monroe:  Text-Bk.  in  Hist.  Educ., 
622-639,  Brief  Course,  319-329;  Painter:  Hist.  Educ.,  ist 
ed.,  315-322;  Seeley:  Hist.  Educ.,  278-283.) 

i.  His  life. 

a.  Student  at  Oldenburg  gymnasium  (1788),  and  at  the 

university  of  Jena  (1794)  —  devoted  particu- 
larly to  philosophical  studies. 

b.  First  a  private  tutor  in  Switzerland  (1797-1800),  then 

professor  of  philosophy  in  Gottingen  (1800- 
1809  and  1833-1841),  and  director  of  peda- 
gogical seminary  at  Konigsberg  (1809- 


c.  Writer  on  education  and  philosophy. 

(1)  The  A  B  C  of  Sense  Perception,  explaining  Pesta- 

lozzi's  views  (1802). 

(2)  General  Pedagogics  (1806). 

(3)  General  Practical  Philosophy  (1808). 

(4)  Text-Book  on  Psychology  (1816). 

(5)  General  Metaphysics  (1829). 

(6)  Outlines  of  Lectures  on  Pedagogy  (1835). 
His  purpose. 

a.  To  show  how  instruction  could  promote  the  develop- 
ment of  moral  character. 

(1)  By  formulating  an  exact  psychology. 

(2)  By  establishing  education  as  a  science. 
His  psychology. 

a.  The  mind  is  a  unity,  possessing  but  one  power,  that  of 

entering  into  relation  with  its  environment. 

b.  His  doctrine  of  apperception  supplements  Pestalozzi's 

principle  of  sense  perception. 


134  Outlines  of  the  History  of  Education 

(1)  The  power  of  assimilating  new  experience  with  old. 

(2)  Sense  perceptions  are  elaborated  by  interaction  and 

combination  into  clear  ideas. 
c.   Consequences  of  the  doctrine  of  apperception. 

(1)  Emphasizes  the  importance  of  proper  methods  of 

instruction. 

(2)  Involves  consideration  of 

(a)  The  best  means  to  awaken  interest  in  order  to 

secure  strong  apperception. 
(&)  The  materials  of  instruction. 
(c)  The  arrangement  and  presentation  of  them  to 

the  learner. 

(3)  Systematizes  education. 

(4)  Tends  to  determine  educational  values. 
4.  His  theory  of  instruction. 

a.  The  "  presentations  "  which  constitute  the  content  of 
the  mind  are  modifiable  through  the  apper- 
ceptive  process. 

6.  The  circle  of  thought  from  "  presentations  "  through 
ideas  and  desire  which  leads  to  volitions  and 
conduct  is  determined  by  instruction. 

c.  The  work  of  instruction  is 

(1)  To  furnish  the  mind  with  "  presentations." 

(2)  To  direct  the  manner  of  acquisition. 

d.  Proper  apperception  depends  upon  interest. 

(i)  Many-sided  interest  alone  enables  ideas  to  enter  into 
organic  relationships  with  "  presentations  " 
already  possessed. 

e.  Careful  selection  and  arrangement  of  the  most  suitable 

materials   for  instruction  are  necessary   for 
development  of  unified  consciousness, 
(i)  Correlation. 


Modern  Education  135 

(2)  Concentration. 

(3)  Coordination. 

/.  The  process  of  instruction  follows  the  nature  of  the 
mind's  activity  and  the  apperceptive  or  as- 
similative character  of  the  mind's  growth 
(formal  steps). 

(1)  Clearness  (preparation  and  presentation). 

(2)  Association  (combination  and  comparison). 

(3)  System  (generalization  and  classification). 

(4)  Method  (verification  and  application). 
5.  Influence  of  the  teachings  of  Herbart. 

a.  Promoted  the  development  of  a  science  of  education. 

b.  Contributed  to  improvement  in  the  professional  training 

of  teachers. 

(1)  Education  has  been  studied  more  systematically. 

(2)  His  methods  and  psychology  have  been  followed 

widely. 

(3)  His  doctrines  of  many-sided  interest,  the  formal  steps, 

and  correlation  have  been  most  influential. 

c.  Courses  of  study  have  been  adapted  to  his  theories. 

d.  Textbooks  have  been  written  according  to  his  principles. 

e.  Interest  has  been  employed  in  the  government  of  pupils. 
/.   His  influence  has  been  strongest  in  Germany  and  in  the 

United  States. 

Friedrich  Wilhelm  August  Froebel  (1782-1852)  —  the  Kin- 
dergarten 

(Barnard :  Journ.  of  Educ.,  v.  2, 449-451,  vs.  30,  31  (see  index) ; 
Blow:  Symbolic  Educ.,  Mottoes  &*  Commentaries  of  Froebel' s 
Mother-Play,  Songs  6*  Music  of  F.'s  Mother-Play,  Letters  to  a 
Mother  (Appleton),  Kindergarten  Educ.,  in  Butler's  Educ.  in 


136  Outlines  of  the  History  of  Education 

U.S.;  Bowen:  F.  6*  Educ.  tkro'  Self-Activity;  Browning: 
Educ.  Theories,  220-225;  Compayre :  Hist.  Fed.,  447-465; 
Davidson:  Hist.  Educ.,  235-239;  Encycl.  Brit.,  art.  on  F.; 
Froebel :  Autobiography  (Bardeen),  Education  of  Man,  Edu- 
cation by  Development,  Pedagogics  of  the  Kindergarten  (Apple- 
ton)  ;  Graves :  Gt.  Educators  of  Three  Centuries,  194-236 ; 
Hailman:  Hist.  Fed.,  114-122;  Harris:  in  U.  S.  Com'r 
Educ.  Rept.,  1896-1897,  v.  i,  899-922  ;  Hoyt :  Studies  in  Hist. 
Educ.,  123-146;  Hughes:  F.'s  Educ.  Laws,  also  art.  in  Proc. 
N.E.A.,  1895,  538-551;  Johonnot:  Prins.  &•  Pract.  of  Teach- 
ing (see  index) ;  Kemp  :  Hist.  Educ.,  291-298 ;  Misawa :  Mod. 
Educators,  166-198  ;  Monroe  :  Text-Bk.  in  Hist.  Educ.,  639- 
667,  Brief  Course,  329-342;  Munroe:  Educ.  Ideal,  195-206; 
Painter:  Hist.  Educ.,  ist  ed.,  278-288,  2d  ed.,  306-315,  Fed. 
Essays,  369-382 ;  Quick :  Educ.  Refs.,  384-413 ;  Seeley : 
Hist.  Educ.,  272-277  ;  Von  Billow  :  Reminiscences  of  F.,  The 
Child  6*  Child  Nature;  Williams :  Hist.  Mod.  Educ.,  396-405.) 

i.  His  life. 

a.  Early  life  and  education. 

(1)  Brought  up  by  uncle  (1792-1797). 

(2)  Apprenticed  to  a  forester  (1797). 

(3)  Student  at  university  of  Jena  (1799) . 

(4)  Teacher  at  Frankfort  —  visited  Pestalozzi  —  tutor  of 

three  boys — studied  under  Pestalozzi  (1805-1808) . 

(5)  Again  student,  at  Gottingen  and  Berlin  (1811). 

(6)  Soldier    (1813)  —  assistant   in   museum    at   Berlin 

(1814). 

b.  Teacher  and  reformer. 

(i)  His  "  Universal  German  Educational  Institute " 
opened  at  Griesheim  (1816),  moved  to  Keilhau 
(1817),  declined  (1825). 


Modern  Education  137 

(2)  Conducted  schools  in  Switzerland  (1829-1835). 

(3)  First  kindergarten  at  Blankenburg  (1837). 

(4)  Lectured  on  kindergarten  (1844). 

(5)  Won  as  disciples  Baroness  Marenholtz-von-Biilow 

and  the  celebrated  educator  Diesterweg  (1849). 

(6)  Prussian  decree  forbidding  establishment  of  schools 

according  to  his  ideas  (1850). 
c.  Writer. 

(1)  Education  of  Man  (1826). 

(2)  Family  Journal  of  Education  (1826). 
^(3)  Mutter  und  Kose  Lieder  (1843). 

(4)  Education  by  Development,  Pedagogics  of  the  Kinder- 
garten, Letters  on  the  Kindergarten  (1838-1852). 
His  purpose. 
a.  To  render  education  a  conscious  evolution. 

(1)  By  continuous  self -activity. 

(2)  Under  proper  stimuli. 

(3)  With  reference  to  proper  objects. 

(4)  Evoked  in  an  orderly  way. 

Chief  characteristics  of  his  philosophy  of  education. 

a.  Unity  or  inner  connection. 

(1)  Fundamental  law  of  education. 

(2)  In  the  mental  and  social  life  of  the  child,  in  the  teach- 

ing process,  in  the  materials  of  instruction,  be- 
tween the  child's  development  and  his  life. 

b.  Self-activity,  the  means  of  development. 

(1)  Fundamental  and  essential  process  of  education. 

(2)  Involves  doctrines  of  interest  and  apperception  as 

applied  educational  principles. 

(3)  Develops  child  into  a  creative  rather  than  an  imi- 

tative being,  an  executive  as  well  as  a  receptive 
and  reflective  being. 


138  Outlines  of  the  History  of  Education 

c.  Early  training  of  sensations  and  emotions. 

d.  Evolution  of  inner  nature. 

(i)  Promoted  by  freedom,  stimulating  environment, 
ample  opportunity,  appropriate  knowledge,  and 
self-activity. 

e.  Individuality. 

(1)  The  guiding  principle  in  education. 

(2)  Free  growth  the  only  full  growth. 
/.   Cooperation. 

(i)  Law  of  unity  as  applied  to  the  individual  in  relation 

to  the  whole  of  humanity. 
g.  Nature  study,  the  revelation  of  unseen  forces. 

(i)  Urged  as  of  increasing  importance  in  education. 
h.  Objective  work. 

(i)  Means  of  developing  creative  faculties  through  self- 
activity,  not  of  learning  objects  nor  even  of  de- 
veloping power  through  instruction. 
i.  Manual  training. 

(i)  The  hand  to  be  the  agent  in  assisting  to  develop  the 

mind. 
j.  Play. 

(i)  Spontaneous  activity  of  the  child  to  be  used  as  basis 

of  the  educative  process  in  the  early  years. 
4.  The  kindergarten. 

a.  The  practical  expression  of  his  principles. 

b.  Intended  to  connect  the  home  and  the  school. 

c.  Characterized  by  doing,  expression,  and  self-activity, 
(i)  Opportunity  given  to  aid  the  child  to  express  him- 
self and  thus  produce  development. 

d.  Furnished  means  of  unity  and  continuity  in  the  develop- 

ment of  the  child  through  the  use  of  "  gifts,"  as 
playthings,  and  occupations,  games,  and  songs. 


Modern  Education  139 

e.  Afforded  training  in  perception,  observation,  comparison, 

and  judgment. 
5.  Results  of  the  teachings  of  Froebel. 

a.  Influenced  all  phases  of  elementary  education. 

b.  Development,  self-activity,  initiative,  and  individuality 

emphasized  as  the  important  ends  of  education. 

c.  Play,  spontaneous  activity,  manual  and  industrial  work 

utilized  to  promote  self-realization. 

d.  Correlation  of  the  materials  of  study  with  the  child  and 

with  life. 

e.  Process  of  education  determined  by  the  nature   of  the 

child. 

/.   Widely  followed  in  the  United  States,  though  less  widely 
in  other  countries. 

THE  PLACE  OF  SCIENCE  IN  EDUCATION  (THE  QUESTION  OF 
EDUCATIONAL  VALUES) 

Chief  Theories  of  Educational  Values 

1 .  The  value  is  in  discipline,  viz. :  Locke's  theory :  that  edu- 

cational value  is  gained  by  the  process  of  acquiring  a  sub- 
ject rather  than  from  the  thing  learned. 

2.  The  value  is  in  the  method  employed,  viz.:  the  psychological 

conception  of  education :  that  educational  value  can  be 
determined  only  on  the  basis  of  apperception  and  in 
accord  with  the  laws  of  mental  development. 

3.  The  value  is  in  the  subject  matter,  viz.:  the  theory  of  the 

scientific  movement :  that  educational  value  is  gained  in 
direct  proportion  to  the  application  that  can  be  made  of 
the  knowledge  to  life. 


140  Outlines  of  the  History  of  Education 

Herbert  Spencer  (1820-1903) 

(Compayre :  Hist.  Fed.,  538-556 ;  Dexter :  Hist.  Educ.  in 
U.  S.,  343-369 ;  Graves  :  Gt.  Educators  of  Three  Centuries, 
274-284  ;  Hailman :  Hist.  Fed.,  84-92  ;  Hanus :  Educ.  Aims 
&  Values;  Misawa  :  Mod.  Educators,  233-244 ;  Monroe  :  Text- 
Bk.  in  Hist.  Educ.,  684-689,  Brief  Course,  354-358;  Painter: 
Hist.  Educ.,  ist  ed.,  335-345,  Fed.  Essays,  399-418;  Payne: 
Contribs.  to  Educ.,  31-68;  Quick:  Educ.  Refs.,  439-469; 
Spencer :  Education  (Appleton) ;  Williams :  Hist.  Mod.  Educ., 
373-384-) 

1.  His  life. 

a.  Early  period :    born  at  Derby  —  educated  privately  — 

distaste  for  classical  languages  —  fondness  for 
mathematics  and  science. 

b.  As  young  man :   engineer  (1837)  —  editor  of  Economist 

(1848-1853). 

c.  As  philosopher  and  writer :  Social  Statics  (1850),  Essays 

(1858-1863),  Education  (1861),  First  Principles 
(1862),  Principles  of  Biology  (1864-1867),  Prin- 
ciples of  Psychology  (1871-1872),  Principles  of 
Sociology  (1876-1880),  Principles  of  Ethics  (1879). 

2.  His  educational  treatise :    Education,   Intellectual,  Moral, 

and  Physical,  in  which  emphasis  is  placed  upon 
science  as  the  knowledge  of  most  worth. 

3.  His  purpose :  to  show  that  the  aim  of  education  in  prepar- 

ing for  complete  living  can  best  be  promoted  by 
the  study  of  science. 

4.  His  doctrine  of  values  of  knowledge. 

a.  Knowledge  that  is  best  for  use  in  life  is  also  best  for 
development  of  power. 


Modern  Education  141 

b.  Relative  values  of  knowledge. 

(1)  That  necessary  for  self-preservation. 

(2)  That  necessary  for  gaining  a  livelihood; 

(3)  That  necessary  for  rearing  children. 

(4)  That  necessary  for  citizenship. 

(5)  That  necessary  for  relaxation. 

c.  The  study  of  science  accomplishes  all  these  ends. 

5.  Principles  of  intellectual  education. 

a.  Accord  with  the  theories  of  Pestalozzi. 

b.  Emphasis  upon 

(1)  From  the  simple  to  the  complex. 

(2)  From  the  concrete  to  the  abstract. 

(3)  From  the  known  to  the  unknown. 

(4)  From  the  empirical  to  the  rational. 

(5)  The  process  of  self-development. 

(6)  The  theory  that  the  genesis  of  knowledge  in  the  indi- 

vidual should  follow  the  same  course  as  the  genesis 
of  knowledge  in  the  race. 

(7)  Learning  being  made  pleasurable. 

6.  Theory  of  moral  education. 

a.  Discipline  of  natural  consequences. 

b.  Self-government  instead  of  that  of  external  authority. 

7.  Emphasis  on  physical  education. 

a.  Physical  vigor  a  fundamental  necessity. 

b.  Attention  to  diet,  clothing,  exercise,  and  play. 

8.  Influence  of  Spencer's  work. 

a.  Led  to  introduction  of  science  into  the  curriculum. 

b.  Promoted  growth  of  utilitarian  motives  in  education. 

c.  Added  emphasis  to  and  tended  to  make  more  scientific 

the  Pestalozzian  principles  of  method. 

d.  Increased  the  attention  to  physical  education. 


142  Outlines  of  the  History  of  Education 

EDUCATIONAL  THEORY  OF  THE  TWENTIETH  CENTURY 
Sociological  Conception  of  Education 

(Bagley :  Educative  Process,  Part,  i ;  Butler :  The  Meaning  of 
Educ.,  17-32;  Dewey:  The  Sch.  6*  Soc.,  The  Child  &•  the 
Curriculum,  Are  the  Schools  doing  What  the  People  Want  Them 
to  Do?  (Educ.  Rev.,  21:  459);  Dutton:  Sociol.  Phases  of 
Educ.;  Dutton  &  Snedden :  Admins,  of  Publ.  Educ.  in  U.  S., 
559-595  ;  Eliot :  Educ.  Reform,  ch.  18  ;  Fitch :  Educ.  Aims  6* 
Meths.,  326-357 ;  Hall :  Some  Soc.  Aspects  of  Educ.  (Educ. 
Rev.,  23  :  433) ;  Hanus :  Educ.  Aims,  ch.  5  ;  Harris  :  Psych. 
Foundations  of  Educ.,  chs.  36,  38 ;  Henderson :  Educ.  6*  the 
Larger  Life;  Home :  Phil,  of  Educ.,  95-168 ;  Howerth : 
Educ.  6*  the  Social  Ideal  (Educ.  Rev.,  Sept.,  1902) ;  Hyde : 
The  Social  Mission  of  the  Publ.  Sch.  (Educ.  Rev.,  22 :  222) ; 
Mackenzie :  An  Introd.  to  Soc.  Phil.,  ch.  6 ;  Monroe :  Text- 
Bk.  in  Hist.  Educ.,  706-746,  Brief  Course,  369-397;  Miinster- 
berg:  Psych.  &*  Life,  1-34;  O'Shea:  Educ.  as  Adjustment; 
Paulding :  The  Publ.  Sch.  as  a  Center  of  Community  Life 
(Educ.  Rev.,  15:147);  Ross:  Social  Control;  Sadler:  The 
Sch.  in  Some  of  its  Relations  to  Social  Order  &•  Nat'l  Life 
(Educ.  Rev.,  29  :  338) ;  Vincent :  The  Social  Mind  &*  Educ., 
chs.  i,  4;  Ward :  Dynamic  Social.,  v.  2,  chs.  10-14.) 

i.  Nineteenth-century  tendencies  that  contributed    to    the 
growth  of  this  conception. 

a.  Opposition  to  the  disciplinary  conception  of  education. 

b.  Growth  of  the  belief  in  a  psychological  basis  for  education. 

c.  Extension  of  the  practical  view  of  education,  expressed 

in  the  scientific  tendency  and  enhanced  by 
the  great  developments  in  all  departments  of 
science. 


Modern  Education  143 

d.  Emphasis  upon  education  in  sociological  theory. 

(1)  Comte :  Education  is  the  means  of  social  control. 

(2)  Ward :    Education  results  in  the  dissemination  of 

knowledge,  upon  which  depend  general  intelli- 
gence, and  upon  this,  in  turn,  depends  social 
progress  and  happiness. 

(3)  Bacon  and  others:    Education  is  the  transmission 

from  one  generation  to  the  next  of  the  sub- 
stance of  the  learning  and  culture  of  the  past ; 
and  growing  out  of  that  thought,  it  is  the  de- 
velopment of  the  power  of  adjustment  to  a 
changing  environment. 

(4)  Howerth  and  others :   Education  is  the  chief  factor 

in  the  process  of  evolution  or  as  some  have 
expressed  it,  education  is  conscious  evolution. 

(5)  Dewey :    "  Education  is  the  process  of  remaking 

experience,  giving  it  a  more  socialized  value 
through  individual  experience,  by  giving  the 
individual  better  control  over  his  powers." 
New  aim  and  meaning  of  education. 

a.  To  equip  one  with  that  knowledge  and  the  power  to  use 

it,  which  will  best  fit  him  to  meet  the  demands 
of  modern  social  life  in  its  varying  activities 
and  relationships. 

b.  The  development  of  a  right  social  attitude  which  shall 

involve 

(1)  A  healthy  body. 

(2)  A  trained  mind. 

(3)  Moral  judgment. 

(4)  Knowledge  which  gives  a  comprehensive  view  of  life. 

(5)  Efficiency  or  skill  to  use  this  knowledge  for  the 

welfare  of  the  community. 


144  Outlines  of  the  History  of  Education 

3.  Ways  by  which  this  demand  for  social  improvement  through 

education  has  been  met. 

a.  By  public  school-systems  offering  free,  compulsory  edu- 

cation. 

b.  By  endowed  institutions  for  the  education  of  all  classes 

in  all  kinds  of  learning. 

c.  By  schools  for  defectives. 

d.  By  libraries,  lectures,  and  the  press. 

e.  By  evening,  correspondence,  and  summer  schools. 

4.  The  industrial  phase  of  this  type  of  education. 

(Bloomfield :  Vocational  Guidance  of  Youth;  Bolton : 
Sec.  Sch.  Syst.  of  Germany,  133-164;  Butler: 
Educ.  in  U.  S.,  551-768,  arts,  as  follows: 
Techn.  Scien.,  and  Engineering  Educ.,  by 
Mendenhall,  Agricultural  Educ.,  by  Dabney, 
Com'l  Educ.,  by  James,  and  Industr.  Educ.,  by 
Clarke ;  Dexter :  Hist.  Educ.  in  U.  S.,  343- 
370,  401-423,  454-480;  Button  &  Snedden : 
Admins,  of  Pull.  Educ.  in  U.  S.,  404-425, 
468-479,  559-596 ;  English  Spec.  Repts.  on 
Educ.,  vs.  i,  3,  9,  u,  15;  Herrick:  Meaning 
6*  Pract.  of  Com'l  Educ.;  MacArthur:  Educ. 
in  Relation  to  Man.  Industry;  Russell :  Germ. 
Higher  Schs.,  76-109,  329-351 ;  Sharpless : 
Eng.  Educ.,  151-169;  Snedden:  Probl.  of 
Vocational  Educ.;  U.  S.  Com'r  Educ.  Repts., 
1891-1892,  v.  i,  369-412,  1897-1898,  v.  i, 
709-749 ;  Ware :  Educ.  Foundations  of  Trade 
&•  Industry.) 

a.  Aim:   to  make  the  individual  a  productive  social  unit 

economically  as  well  as  politically. 

b.  Manual  education. 


Modern  Education  145 

(1)  For  both  educational  and  vocational  values. 

(2)  In  both  elementary  and  secondary  schools. 

(3)  Including  woodwork,  ironwork,  cooking,  sewing,  clay 

modeling,  paper  folding,  printing,  drawing. 

c.  Technical  education. 

(1)  Distinctly  professional  in  character. 

(2)  Schools  upon  private  foundations. 

(3)  State-supported  schools. 

(4)  In  departments  of  colleges  and  universities. 

(5)  National  schools. 

(6)  Offering  courses  in  architecture  and   the  various 

departments  of  engineering,  including  civil, 
chemical,  electrical,  irrigation,  metallurgical, 
mining,  marine,  sanitary,  naval,  textile,  rail- 
way. 

d.  Agricultural  education. 

(1)  For  its  economic  value. 

(2)  State  agricultural  colleges. 

(3)  In  departments  of  established  colleges  and  univer- 

sities. 

(4)  Experiment  stations. 

(5)  Public  schools. 

(6)  Embracing  instruction  in  agriculture,  horticulture, 

forestry,  agricultural  chemistry,  botany,  zool- 
ogy,   including    entomology,    vegetable    and 
animal    physiology,    geology,    meteorology, 
drawing,   veterinary   science,   dairying,   live- 
stock, husbandry,  etc. 

e.  Commercial  education. 

(1)  To  meet  the  demands  of  business. 

(2)  Commercial  and  business  schools. 

(3)  Commercial  courses  in 


146  Outlines  of  the  History  of  Education 

(a)  Public  schools. 

(6)  Private  secondary  schools. 

(c)   Colleges  and  universities. 

(4)  Giving  instruction  in  bookkeeping,  business  prac- 
tice, civics,  commercial  law,  commercial 
arithmetic,  commercial  geography,  stenog- 
raphy, economics,  banking,  finance,  trans- 
portation, insurance,  sociology,  diplomacy, 
modern  languages. 
/.  Industrial  and  vocational  education. 

(1)  To  provide  means  of  obtaining  a  livelihood. 

(2)  Trades  schools  of  elementary  and  secondary  grades. 

(3)  Vocational  schools. 

(4)  Industrial  courses  in  public  and  private  schools  of 

all  grades. 

(5)  Special  industrial  schools  for  defectives,  and  in  the 

United  States  for  the  negroes  and  for  the 
Indians. 

(6)  Instruction  including  carpentry,  wood  carving,  pat- 

tern making,  forging,  molding,  plumbing, 
blacksmithing,  the  textile  industries,  the 
machine  trades,  bricklaying,  plastering,  stone- 
cutting,  steam-  and  hot-water  fitting,  paint- 
ing, sewing,  cooking,  millinery,  dressmaking, 
laundry,  nursing,  housekeeping,  etc. 


Modern  Education  147 

DEVELOPMENT  OF  PUBLIC  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION 

(Adams:  Free  Schs.  in  U.  S.;  Barnard:  Journ.  of  Educ., 
v.  4,  545-58i  (E.) ;  v.  8,  310-314  (E.) ;  v.  9,  215-224  (Scot.), 
170-200  (E.),  381-390  (Fr-)  5  v.  10,  323-531  (E.) ;  v.  n,  254- 
281  (F.) ;  v.  12,  593-600  (E.) ;  v.  15,  81-117  (E.) ;  v.  16,  5-21 
(00,609-624  (G.);  v.  17,435-554  (G.);  v.  20,335-360  (G.), 
211-332  (F.),  360-434  (G.) ;  v.  21,  401-606  (F.) ;  v.  22,  651- 
664  (F.),  861-884  (G.);  v.  23,  365-368  (E.);  v.  26,  561-644 
(E). ;  v.  27,  509-512  (G.) ;  v.  28,  737~738  (E.),  855-860  (E.) ; 
Blow :  Kindergarten  Educ.  in  Butler's  Educ.  in  U.  S.,  33-76 ; 
Boone:  Educ.  in  U.S.;  Brouard:  U  Instruction  Primaire; 
Browning:  Educ.  Theories,  226-232 ;  Davidson:  Hist.  Educ., 
225-226,246-253;  Dexter:  Hist.  Educ.  in  U. S.,  i-ioi,  155- 
169 ;  Dutton  &  Snedden :  Admins,  of  Pull.  Educ.  in  U.  S. 
(see  contents) ;  Eng.  Educ.  Dept.  Repts.  nos.  i,  2,  6,  7,  8, 10,  18 
(see  contents) ;  Greenough :  Evol.  of  ELem.  Schs.  ofGt.  Britain; 
Harris:  Elem.  Educ.  in  Butler's  Educ.  in  U.  S.,  77-140; 
Hinsdale:  Horace  Mann  6*  the  Com.  Sch.  Revival  in  U.  S.; 
Hoyt:  Studies  in  Hist.  Educ.,  147-172;  Kemp:  Hist.  Educ., 
162-170,  225-227,  269-273,  277-281,  302,  322;  Klemm: 
Europ.  Schs.;  Mann.  (Mrs.) :  Life  of  Horace  Mann; 
Martin:  Evol.  of  M ass.  Publ.  Sch.  Syst. ;  Monroe:  Text-Bk. 
in  Hist.  Educ.,  338-339,  407-408,  410,  433-439,  529»  593, 
700-702,  724-738,  Brief  Course,  156-157,  196-198,  207-214, 
269-270,  366-368,  382-393  ;  Munroe :  Educ.  Ideal,  207-223  ; 
Painter :  Fed.  Essays,  383-398 ;  Parsons :  French  Schs.  thro' 
Amer.  Eyes,  Prussian  Schs.  thro'  Amer.  Eyes;  Prince :  Meths.  of 
Instr.&Organiz.  of  Schs.  of  Germany,  1-22,  68-76  ff.,  183-215; 
Sharpless:  Eng.  Educ.,  1-51;  U.  S.  Com'r  Educ.  Repts., 
vs.  i:  1888-1889,  32-77  (G.,  F.,  U.  S.),  78-111  (E.), 
112-149  (F.) ;  1889-1890,  263-280  (F.  &  E.),  299-312,  419- 


148  Outlines  of  the  History  of  Education 

464(0.);  1890-1891,  95-124  (F.) ;  1891-1892,  97-104  (E.), 
139-196  (G.) ;  1892-1893,  203-208  (E.),  323-336  (G.) ;  1893- 
1894,  206-297  (G.);  1894-1895,  257-273  (E.),  322-485  (G.); 
1895-1896,  79-135  (E.),  138-164  (G.);  1896-1897,  15-27 
(E.);  1897-1898,3-82  (G.);  1898-1899,  3-65  (E.),  125-164 
(G.) ;  1899-1900,721-894(0.),  1167-1243  (E.) ;  1901,  1-128 
(G.),  939-1008  (E.);  1902,  647-666  (F.),  1001-1068  (E.); 
vs.  2:  1890-1891,  705-767  (G.  &  U.  S.) ;  1899-1900,  1712- 
1732  (F.) ;  1908,  186-188,  201-219  (E-)j  224-230  (F.),  247- 
253  (G.);  I909,375-393(E.),  408-420  (F.),  448-478  (G.).) 

i.  Began  with  the  Reformation  Movement. 

a.  In  Germany. 

(1)  Luther  (1483-1546)  said :  "  The  welfare  of  the  State 

depends  upon  the  education  of  the  indi- 
vidual citizen,"  and  advocated  compulsory 
State  education  for  both  sexes  —  the  city 
of  Magdeburg,  in  1524,  established  a  sys- 
tem of  schools  in  accord  with  his  plan. 

(2)  Melancthon    (1479-1560),   by   the   Saxony   School 

Plan,  provided  grammar  schools  for  all 
towns  and  villages  of  Saxony,  —  a  plan 
which  was  copied  generally  by  other 
German  states  by  1565. 

b.  In  Switzerland. 

(i)  Zwingli  (1484-1532),  author  of  The  Christian 
Education  of  Youth,  did  much  to  pro- 
mote the  cause  of  education. 

c.  In  Holland. 

(i)  The  Reformed  Church,  in  1618,  in  connection  with 
the  State  undertook  the  provision  of  ele- 
mentary schools  in  each  parish. 


Modern  Education  149 

d.  In  France. 

(1)  The    Jansenists    (1637-1661)    opened    the    Little 

Schools  at  Port  Royal,  noted  for  the  use 
of  the  mother  tongue  and  for  improved 
methods. 

(2)  La  Salle  (1651-1719)   and  the  Christian  Brothers 

founded  many  schools,  with  pupils  graded 
and  taught  simultaneously  in  classes. 

e.  In  America. 

(1)  A  general  law  was  passed  in  1647  by  the  Massachu- 

setts Bay  Colony,  ordering  the  starting 
of  an  elementary  school  in  every  town  of 
fifty  families. 

(2)  Following  this  example  provisions  of  similar  char- 

acter were  made  in  the  other  colonies 
from  this  time  up  to  the  Revolutionary 
War. 

(3)  This  elementary  instruction  was  not  free,  however, 

until  the  nineteenth  century. 
/.   In  Scotland. 

(i)  By  cooperation  of  Church  and  State,  an  act  was 

passed  in  1696  requiring  the  establishment 

of  a  school  for  elementary  instruction  in 

every  parish. 

Promoted  by  Comenius,  realist  (1592-1670). 
a.  Improved   methods,    changed   curriculum,    wrote   first 

illustrated  textbook,   and  provided  both 

an  infant  school  and  a  vernacular  school. 
Enthusiasm  stirred  up  by  Rousseau  (1712-1778)  and  Base- 

dow  (1728-1790),  naturalists, 
a.  Rousseau  popularized  education  and  made  the  child 

the  positive  factor  in  the  process  —  also 


150  Outlines  of  the  History  of  Education 

caused  the  introduction  of  new  subject 
matter  into  the  school. 

b.  Basedow's  work  was  the  direct  outgrowth  of  that  of 
Rousseau. 

(1)  Planned  complete  system  of  reformed  elementary 

education,  for  the  first  time  designated 
wholly  for  children,  not  controlled  by 
the  standards  of  adults. 

(2)  Began  the  first  literature  designed  wholly  for  chil- 

dren —  inspired  the  writing  of  Swiss  Fam- 
ily Robinson. 

4.  Influence  of  the  French  Revolution  (1789). 

a.  Furthered  the  extension  by  the  State  of  the  privileges 
of  education  to  all  classes. 

5.  Awakening  in  England. 

a.  Parochial    schools,    primary    school  foundations,    sub- 

scription schools,  and  dame  schools  in 
villages  (early  eighteenth  century). 

b.  Monitorial  systems  of  Bell  and  Lancaster  (1797). 

c.  Educational  societies  (from  1808). 

(i)  Whose  work  in  promoting  universal  elementary 
education  has  continued  throughout  the 
nineteenth  century. 

6.  New  interest  aroused  by  Pestalozzi  (17  6-1827),  Herbart 

(1776-1841),  and  Froebel  (1782-1852), 
psychologists. 

a.  Pestalozzi  urged  a  practical  and  universal  elementary 

education  as  a  necessity  to  reform  society, 
and  improved  the  methods  of  instruction 
by  basing  them  upon  psychological  prin- 
ciples. 

b.  Herbart  continued  and  perfected  Pestalozzi's  work  with 


Modern  Education  151 

regard  to  methods  of  instruction,  mak- 
ing apperception,  interest,  correlation, 
"  method,"  etc.,  most  important  features 
of  modern  elementary  teaching. 

c.  Froebel  founded  the  kindergarten,  whose  spirit  of  sym- 
pathy  and   whose   principle   of   develop- 
ment by  self-activity  have  permeated  all 
elementary  school  work. 
7.  Four  state  systems  developed  in  the  nineteenth  century. 

a.  Germany. 

1808-1811.     Introduction  of  Pestalozzian  methods. 

1818.    Ministry  of  education  created. 

1825.     Steps  toward  compulsory  attendance. 

1833.     Attempt  to  abolish  tuition  fees. 

1850.  Supremacy  of  the  State  in  education  estab- 
lished by  the  constitution. 

1872.  Demand  for  uniform  educational  system  — 
State  supervision  established  by  law. 

1888.     General  abolition  of  tuition  fees. 

b.  France. 

1808.    University  of  France  created. 

1815.  Commissioner  of  Public  Instruction  pro- 
vided for. 

1824.  Ministerial  department  of  education  estab- 
lished. 

1833.  Guizot's  law  founding  the  French  national 
system  of  education  —  partial  State  super- 
vision and  support  —  compulsory  attend- 
ance —  private  and  public  schools. 

1850.     Communal  control  of  local  schools. 

1870.     Extension  of  supervision. 

1 88 1.    Elementary  instruction  made  free. 


152  Outlines  of  the  History  of  Education 

1882.     Elementary    instruction    made    compulsory 

between  ages  of  6  and  13. 
1900-1903.     Schools  made  non-religious. 
1904.     Religious  teaching  orders  suppressed. 
c.  England. 

1808.     Royal  Lancastrian   Institution   founded  to 

promote  the  Lancastrian  system  of  schools 

(became  in  1814,  The  British  and  Foreign 

School  Society). 
1811.    The    National    Society,    to    found    schools 

according  to  the  system  of  Bell  (Church  of 

England). 

1824-1868.     Many  educational  societies  formed. 
1832.     First   public    money    grant   for  education, 

continued  ever  since. 
1839.     Committee  of  Council  on  Education  instituted 

to  supervise  the  distribution  of  the  grants. 
1842-1852.    Parliamentary  grants  greatly  increased : 

3800  schools,  540,000  pupils. 
1856.     Education  Department  formed. 
1862.     System  of  "  payment  by  results  "  begun. 
1870.    Elementary  Education  Act,   establishing  a 

national    system    of    education  —  schools 

organized,  supported,  and  supervised  by 

the  State. 
1880.     Elementary  education  under  10  years  of  age 

made  compulsory. 
1891.    Elementary  education  under  10  years  of  age 

made  free  with  governmental  supervision. 
1899.    National  Board  of  Education  established  — 

instruction  made  compulsory  up  to  12  years 

of  age. 


Modern  Education  153 

1900.     Local  boards  permitted  to  make  education 

compulsory  up  to  14  years  of  age. 

d.  United  States *  (not  a  national  system) :  development  in 
ten  representative  states. 

(1)  District  of  Columbia. 

1804.  System  of  elementary  schools  inaugurated. 

1848.  Elementary  schools  made  free. 
1862.     Colored  schools  provided. 

1869.     Superintendent  of  schools  appointed. 
1874.     Board  of  trustees  placed  in  control. 

(2)  New  York. 

1795.     General  school  law  enacted  to  encourage  the  es- 
tablishment of  schools  throughout  the  state. 

1805.  Public  School  Society  of  the  City  of  New 

York  chartered  to  found  free  schools. 
State   common-school   fund   established   by 
legislature. 

1812.  Office   of   State   Superintendent  of  schools 

created. 

1813.  State  divided  into  districts  for  school  pur- 

poses, under  the  supervision  of  township 

commissioners. 
1818.     Monitorial  system  tried  in  New  York  city, 

under  the  direction  of  Joseph  Lancaster, 

Englishman. 
1841.     County  Superintendents  provided. 

1849.  System  of  free  schools  begun  for  the  entire 

state. 
1853.     First  act  providing  for  union  free  schools. 

1  Free  public  elementary  instruction  to-day  in  all  states  of  the  Union,  and 
in  most  of  the  states  attendance  compulsory,  although  the  laws  differ  in  lengths 
of  school  year  and  in  numbers  of  years  required. 


154  Outlines  of  the  History  of  Education 

1867.     System  of  free  schools  in  full  operation.    Free 

school  fund  established. 
1874.     Compulsory  Education  Law,  fixing  age  from 

8  to  14  years  (raised  to  16  years  later). 
1900.     Enacted  that  no  person  should  be  refused 

admission  into  or  be  excluded  from  any 

public  school  on  account  of  race  or  color. 
1904.     State  Commissioner  of  Education  appointed. 

(3)  Massachusetts. 

1789.     School  law  provided  schools  to  be  supported 

by  local  districts. 

1826.    Public  supervision  extended. 
1834.    Permanent  school  fund  established. 
1837.    State  board  of  education  created  —  Horace 
Mann,  secretary. 

Elementary  instruction  made  free. 

Attendance  made  compulsory. 

Appropriations  doubled. 
1846.     Special  agents  of  the  board  appointed. 
1854.     City  and  town  superintendents  authorized. 
1869.     Consolidation  of  rural  schools  inaugurated. 

1883.  Evening  schools  started. 

1884.  Free  textbook  law  enacted. 

1902.     Superintendent  of  schools  required  by  law 

in  every  town  and  city. 
1910.     Office  of  State  Commissioner  of  Education 

created. 

(4)  Connecticut. 

Up  to  1825.     District  plan  of  local  support  and  con- 
trol of  elementary  schools. 

1825.  Lancastrian  system  adopted. 

1826.  State  supervision  tried. 


Modern  Education  155 

1837.  Complete  system  of  organization. 

1838.  State  Board  of  Commissioners  established  — 

Henry  Barnard,  secretary. 

1839.  Elementary  education  made  free. 

(5)  Virginia. 

1818.     General  provision  for  elementary  education. 

1846.  School  districts,  county  commissioners,  and 

district  trustees  provided. 

1870.     New  constitution  adopted,  providing  a  full 
State  system  of  free  schools. 

(6)  Ohio. 

1821.    First  public  school  law  enacted. 

1847.  Graded  schools  provided. 

1853.  Elementary  education  made  free. 

1900.     Consolidation  of  rural  schools  inaugurated. 

(7)  Indiana. 

1824.  General  school  law  enacted,  providing  for 

schools  to  be  established  in  all  districts. 
1852.     School  tax  imposed  —  also  opposed. 
1867.     School  tax  made  constitutional. 

(8)  Illinois. 

1825.  System  of  free  schools  begun — law  ineffective 

in  1827  and  not  fully  reenacted  for  years. 

1854.  First  state  superintendent  of  schools. 

1855.  Elementary  education  made  free. 

(9)  Tennessee. 

1830.     First  provision  for  elementary  instruction. 
1891.     Graded  schools  established. 
(10)  Mississippi. 

1846.     First  law  providing  general  school  system  — 

not  fully  carried  out  until  after  Civil  War. 

1870.     Complete  system  established  by  legislature. 


156  Outlines  of  the  History  of  Education 

DEVELOPMENT  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

(Arnold :  A  French  Eton,  6*  Schs.  6*  Univs.  of  France;  Bar- 
nard :  Journ.  of  Educ.,  v.  5,  689-699  (G.) ;  v.  8,  257-282 
(E.);  v.  16,657-688  (E.);  v.  17,435-544  (G.) ;  v.  21,401- 
606  (F.);  v.  24,  433-436  (E.);  v.  28,  729-742  (E.),  749-752 
(E.) ;  Bolton :  Sec.  Sch.  Syst.  of  Germany,  1-384 ;  Boone : 
Educ.  in  U.  S.;  Brown  (J.  F.) :  The  Am.  High  Sch.,  1-38 ; 
Brown  (E.  E.) :  Hist.  Sec.  Educ.  in  Am.  (Sch.  Rev.,  vs.  6,  7, 
1897-1898),  The  Making  of  Our  Middle  Schs.,  chs.  n,  14; 
Browning:  Educ.  Theories,  202-225;  Butler:  Educ.  in  U.  S., 
141-768;  Dexter:  Hist.  Educ.  in  U.  S.,  90-96,  170-181; 
Dutton  &  Snedden:  Admins,  of  Publ.  Educ.  in  U.  S.  (see 
contents) ;  Eng.  Educ.  Dept.  Repts.,  nos.  i,  2,  3,  6,  9, 11,19,  20, 
24  (see  contents) ;  Farrington :  French  Sec.  Schs.,  1-338 ; 
Fitch:  Matthew  and  Thomas  Arnold;  Gill:  Systs.  of  Educ., 
1-47;  Kemp:  Hist.  Educ.,  171-192,  323-332,  337-338; 
Klemm :  Europ.  Schs.;  Lange :  Higher  Educ.  of  Women  in 
Europe;  Monroe :  Text-Bk.  in  Hist.  Educ.,  389-397,  418-419, 
527-528,  697-700,  Brief  Course,  183-187,  200-201,  266-270, 
363-366 ;  Munroe :  Educ.  Ideal,  207-223  ;  Prince :  Meths.  of 
Instr.  &  Organiz.  of  Schs.  of  Germany,  44-66,  205-215  ;  Russell : 
Germ.  Higher  Schs.,  1-475;  Sharpless:  Eng.  Educ.,  75-169; 
Ware:  Educ.  Foundations  of  Trade  &•  Industry;  U.  S. 
Com'r  Educ.  Repts.,  vs.  i,  1888-1889,  33-77  (G.,  F., 

u.  s.),  112-149  (Fr.);  1889-1890, 281-292, 314-407, 455-464 

(G.);  1890-1891,  109-124  (F.),  135-150  (E.);  1891-1892, 
105-137  (E.),  369-412  (F.) ;  1894-1895,  289-312  (F.),  583- 
712  (E.) ;  1895-1896,  635-639  (F.) ;  1896-1897, 126-206  (G.)  ; 
1897-1898,  3-82  (G.),  694-788  (F.);  1898-1899,  201-203 
(G.),  1106-1138  (F.);  1899-1900,  45-84  (E.),  721-894  (G.); 
1901,  1-128  (G.),  939-1008  (E.),  1103-1109  (F.) ;  1902,  685- 


Modern  Education  157 

698  (F.),  1001-1068  (E.) ;  1905,  76-80  (F.) ;  1906,  30-32 
(F.);  1907,143-157  (F.);  1908,188-193  (E.),  230-238  (F.), 
254-274  (G.) ;  1909,  420-432  (F.),  492-496  (G.).) 

i.  The  Classical  schools  of  the  Renaissance. 

a.  In  England  under  the  influence  of  Erasmus,  More,  Roger 

Ascham,  and  John  Colet. 

(1)  Eton,  1441;    St.  Paul's,  1512;  Shrewsbury,  1551; 

Westminster,  1560;  Rugby,  1567;  Harrow, 
1571 ;  Charterhouse,  1609. 

(2)  Devoted  exclusively  to  formal  study  of  Greek  and 

Latin  languages  and  literatures. 

(3)  Mathematics,  science,  history,  and  modern  languages 

introduced  only  in  the  nineteenth  century. 

b.  In   Germany   through  the  work  of  John   Sturm   and 

Melancthon. 

(1)  First  gymnasium  at  Strassburg  in   1538  —  Sturm, 

the  rector  —  course  completely  organized  and 
graded,  with  ten  classes  —  devoted  to  religion, 
and  Greek  and  Latin  classics,  German  being 
studied  only  incidentally. 

(2)  Courses  of  study  of  these  new  secondary  schools 

were  formed  either  by  the  direct  advice  or  un- 
der the  influence  of  Melancthon,  whose  pupils 
became  in  many  cases  gymnasium  rectors. 
(a)  The  Saxony  Latin  Schools,  his  first  foundations 
(see  p.  81). 

(3)  Long  the  type  of  German  secondary  schools. 

c.  In  Catholic  countries,  founded  by  the  Jesuits  in  1540. 
(i)  Classical  schools  of  five  grades,   covering  five  to 

seven  years,  devoted  to  formal  study  of  Greek 
and  Latin. 


158  Outlines  of  the  History  of  Education 

(2)  Thoroughly  organized  and  work  carefully  systema- 

tized, teaching  gratuitous,  but  results  narrow 
and  showy. 

(3)  Greatly  influenced  the  development  of  secondary 

education  in  Germany. 

2.  The  Rilterakademien  of  the  seventeenth  century. 

a.  Schools  for  German  nobles. 

b.  Resulted  from  the  affectation  by  the  youth  of  French 

ways  and  ideals. 

c.  Included  instruction  in  the  French  language  and  litera- 

ture, mathematics,  physics,  political  science, 
geography,  history,  law,  etc. 

3.  The  Latin  Grammar  Schools  in  New  England. 

a.  Boston  Latin  School  established  in  1635. 

b.  Included  classical  college-preparatory  courses. 

c.  Religious  spirit  strong. 

d.  Tuition  not  free. 

4.  Influence  of  the  realistic  movement. 

a.  Ratich  (1571-1635)  and  Comenius  (1592-1670). 

(1)  New  methods  of  teaching. 

(2)  Urged  study  of  natural  science  and  the  vernacular. 

b.  Realschulen  or  real-schools. 

(1)  First  established  by  Hecker  in  Berlin,  in  1747,  for 

those  who  did  not  propose  to  enter  the  learned 
professions. 

(2)  Offered  instruction  in  religion  and  ethics,  German, 

French,  Latin,  writing,  arithmetic,  drawing, 
history,  geography,  geometry,  mechanics, 
architecture,  and  trades. 

(3)  Widely  copied  throughout  Germany. 

c.  Academies. 

(i)  In  England. 


Modern  Education  159 

(a)  Founded  by  Dissenters,  who  were  excluded  from 
the  public  schools  and  the  universities. 

(6)  Provided  direct  preparation  for  the  practical 
occupations  of  life. 

(c)  Curriculum  included  "  real "  studies,  English, 
French,  Italian,  logic,  history,  economics, 
natural  philosophy,  geography,  algebra,  geom- 
etry, surveying,  trigonometry,  mechanics,  etc. 
(2)  In  America. 

(a)  Character  similar  to  that  of  English  academies. 

(b)  Purpose:    to  meet  the  needs  of  those  who  did 

not  intend  to  go  to  the  universities,  but  who 
wished  a  complete  practical  education. 

(c)  The  first  one :   "  The  Academy  and  Charitable 

School  of  Pennsylvania,"  opened  in  1751. 

(d)  Became  a  distinct  type  of  secondary  school  in 

the  United   States,   being  founded  in  great 
numbers  after  the  Revolutionary  War. 

(e)  Began   as  private  schools  —  later  many  were 

incorporated     into    the     State    systems    of 
schools. 

Development  in  the  nineteenth  century, 
a.  France. 

1802.  Modern  system  of  secondary  education  organ- 
ized by  the  establishment  of 

(1)  Lycees,  supported  by  the  State. 

(2)  Colleges,  supported  by  the  commune.     Both 

to  prepare  for  the  university  and  the  higher 
professional  schools,  and  for  civil  service. 

1814.  Modern  languages  made  part  of  the  regular 
course  —  work  in  history  extended. 

1815-1848.     Lycees  called  Royal  Colleges. 


160  Outlines  of  the  History  of  Education 

1828.     Instruction  in  science  brought  up  to  that  in  letters. 

1848.     Name  of  lycee  resumed. 

1852.  Two  courses  established :  (a)  in  letters,  (b)  in 
science. 

1880.     Lycees  and  colleges  for  girls  created. 

1890.  Curriculum  reorganized,  providing  both  a  classi- 
cal and  a  modern  baccalaureate. 

1902.     Curriculum   again   reorganized,    providing   two 
cycles  of  studies  with  a  single  baccalau- 
reate. 
b.  Germany. 

1808.  Reorganization  of  secondary  education  by  Hum- 
boldt. 

1817.     Ministry  of  education  created. 

1820.  (Approximately.)  Admission  to  civil  service  con- 
ditioned upon  graduation  from  the  gym- 
nasium. 

1825.  Separation  from  the  Church  accomplished  and 
State  control  assured. 

1834.  Admission  to  learned  professions  conditioned  also 
upon  graduation  from  the  gymnasium. 

1800-1835.     Period  of  foundation  of  technical  schools. 

1837.  Uniformity  in  instruction  and  in  organization 
attained  and  Greek  made  obligatory. 

1840-1870.     Period  of  specialization. 

1856.  Gymnasial  program  reorganized  but  remained 
distinctly  classical. 

1859.  Realschulen  officially  recognized  and  two  types 
provided :  one  with  full  nine-year  course 
and  with  Latin  throughout,  the  other, 
with  curriculum  determined  largely  by 
local  authorities. 


Modern  Education  161 

1873.     German  Association  for  the  Secondary  Education 

of  Girls  formed. 
1875.     Secondary  schools   for  girls  placed  in  general 

class  of  hohere  schulen  with  those  for  boys. 
1875  and  following  years.     Period  of  development  of 

technical  high  schools. 
1882.     Realschulen  reclassified : 

(1)  Realgymnasien,  with   nine-year  Latin-scien- 

tific course  which  prepared  for  the  univer- 
sity and  for  the  higher  technical  schools. 

(2)  Oberrealschulen,  with  nine-year  course  with- 

out Latin,  to  prepare  for  the  university 
and  for  technical  and  industrial  pursuits. 

(3)  Realschulen,  with  six-year  course  in  modern 

languages  and  natural  science,  to  prepare 

for  practical  life. 
1893.     Special  regulations  of  the  ministry  of  education 

passed  concerning  secondary  schools  for 

girls,  giving  official  definition  to  them  and 

providing  an  official  program  of  study. 
First  mddchengymnasium  established   at   Carls- 

ruhe. 
1900.     Royal  decree  giving  equal  value  to  training  in  the 

gymnasium,  the  realgymnasium,  and   the 

oberrealschule. 

1902.     Privileges  of  realschule  greatly  extended. 
1908.     Secondary  schools  for  girls  made  equal  in  rank 

with  those  for  boys. 
c.  England. 

Up  to  1865.     Different  kinds  of  secondary  schools,  on 

private  foundations  only,  with  little  or  no 

inspection. 


1 62  Outlines  of  the  History  of  Education 

(1)  The  "  Public  Schools  "  (cf.  p.  77). 

(2)  The  "  Grammar  Schools." 

(3)  Endowed  schools. 

(4)  Technical  schools. 

1865.  Royal  Commission  appointed  to  investigate 
secondary  education  —  reorganization  of 
programs  —  modern  languages  and  science 
introduced  —  better  inspection. 
Establishment  of  secondary  schools  for  the  com- 
mon people,  as  higher  elementary  schools 
or  as  preparatory  schools  to  teachers' 
training  colleges. 

1872.     Secondary  education  for  girls  provided. 

1889-1890.  London  County  Council  empowered  to  es- 
tablish and  support  technical  schools  of 
secondary  grade. 

1902.  Government  made  grants  to  the  support  of 
these  technical  schools  provided  25  per 
cent  of  the  students  were  non-paying  — 
similar  grants  were  made  to  the  public 
secondary  schools. 

(Even  up  to  the  present  time  the  endowed  "  Pub- 
lic Schools  "  or  "  Grammar  Schools  "  are 
the  only  schools  which  provide  a  liberal 
secondary  education  preparatory  to  the 
university  and  professional  life.) 
d.  United  States. 

Up  to  1821.  Private  academies  and  Latin  grammar 
schools  the  only  ones  of  secondary 
grade. 

1821.     First  public  high  school  in  Boston. 

1821-1839.     Six  others  founded  at  Portland,  Worcester, 


Modern  Education  163 

New  Bedford,  Cambridge,  Taunton,  and 
Philadelphia. 

1839-1849.     Six  additional  ones  founded. 

These  public  high  schools  combined  the  features 
and  functions  of  both  the  academies  and 
the  Latin  grammar  schools,  were  free  and 
were  publicly  supported. 

Since  1860.     Phenomenal  growth  of  high  schools. 

1870.     160  high  schools. 

1880.     800  high  schools. 

1890.     2526  high  schools. 

1900.     6005  high  schools. 

1905.     7576  high  schools. 

1909.     10,213  high  schools. 

Sphere  of  high  school  work  ever  widening  to  meet 
the  needs  of  all  students  —  now  includes 
classical,  Latin-scientific,  modern-language, 
English,  scientific,  commercial,  manual 
training,  industrial,  and  art  courses. 
High  schools  provide  free  tuition,  in  some  states 
free  textbooks  —  are  secular  and  are  sup- 
ported by  state  funds. 

1892-1894.  Committee  of  Ten  of  the  National  Educa- 
tional Association  accomplished  the  stand- 
ardization of  the  courses  of  study  and 
methods  of  instruction  of  secondary  edu- 
cation. 


164  Outlines  of  the  History  of  Education 

DEVELOPMENT  OF  PROFESSIONAL  TRAINING  OF  TEACHERS 

(Bolton:  Sec.  Sch.  Syst.  of  Germany,  55-128;  Boone:  Educ. 
in  U.  S.;  Compayre  :  Hist.  Fed.,  404-405  ;  Brown:  The  Tr.  of 
Teachers  for  Sec.  Schs.,  Pt.  i  (G.),  Pt.  2  (U.  S.);  Dexter:  Hist. 
Educ.  in  U.  S.,  371-400;  Dutton  &  Snedden :  Admins,  of 
Publ.  Educ.  in  U.  S.  (see  contents) ;  Eng.  Educ.  Dept. 
Repts.,  nos.  i,  2,  3,  6,  9,  10,  18  (see  contents);  Farrington: 
French  Sec.  Schs.,  103-123,  345-377;  Hinsdale:  Training  of 
Trs.  in  Butler's  Educ.  in  U.  S.,  359-408  ;  Kemp  :  Hist.  Educ., 
192,  234,  239-240,  249-251,  319-321;  Monroe:  Text-Bk.  in 
Hist.  Educ.,  424-425,  439,  467,  498,  627-639,  668,  Brief  Course, 
204-205,  213,  230,  249,  322-329,  343;  Parsons:  Prussian 
Schs.  seen  thro'  Amer.  Eyes,  French  Schs.  seen  thro'  Amer. 
Eyes;  Prince :  Meths.  of  Instr.  &*  Organiz.  of  Schs.  of  Germany, 
35-43,  183-204;  Russell:  Germ.  Higher  Schs.,  352-369; 
Sharpless :  Eng.  Educ.,  52-74 ;  U.  S.  Com'r  Educ.  Repts.  vs. 
i:  1888-1889,  32-77  (G.  &  F.);  1891-1892,  139-196  (G.) ; 
1893-1894,  206-244  (G.);  1894-1895,  322-485  (G);  1895- 
1896,  138-164  (G.);  1897-1898,  3-82  (G.),  133-167  (E.); 
1898-1899,  201-203  (G.)  ;  1901,  647-666  (F.) ;  1908,  244  ff. 
(F.),  252-256  (G.);  1909,  375-377  (E.),  452-453>  471,  479, 
484-485  (G.)0 

i.  Sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries. 

a.  Jesuits  (organized  in  1 540) . 

(i)  Members   of   order   received   training   as    student 
teachers  under  supervision  of  elders. 

b.  Mulcaster  in  England  urged,  in  1581,  that  the  universi- 

ties should  offer  training  for  teachers  as 
they  did  for  practice  of  law,  medicine,  and 
theology. 


Modern  Education  165 

c.  Christian  Brothers. 

(1)  In  1685,  first  institution  opened  at  Rheims  for  train- 

ing members  of  order  for  their  work. 

(2)  Normal  schools  with  primary  schools  for  practice 

teaching  established  afterwards. 

d.  Francke  (1692-1707)  trained  his  teachers  for  their  work 

in  seminarium  selectum  prczceptorum. 
Eighteenth  century. 

a.  Germany. 

1735.     First  State   teachers'   seminary  established  by 

Frederick  William  of  Prussia. 
1738.     University  work  in  education  inaugurated. 

(1)  Pedagogical  seminary  at  Gottingen. 

(2)  Soon  copied  by  other  universities. 

1763.     State  teachers'  examinations  in  certain  subjects 

ordered. 
1771.     Normal  school  established  at  Vienna. 

b.  France. 

1794.     First    normal    school    (at   Paris)    provided    by 
law. 

c.  United  States. 

1789-1800.     Various  published  articles  appeared,  urging 

better  preparation  of  teachers. 
Nineteenth  century. 
a.  Promoted  by  theorists  and  teachers. 

(1)  Pestalozzi,  whose  teachings  have  been  widely  in- 

corporated in  the  training  of  teachers. 

(2)  Herbart,  especially  his  principles  of  apperception, 

interest,  correlation,  and  the  formal  steps 
in  teaching. 

(3)  Froebel,  with  the  doctrine  of  the  kindergarten,  of 

self-activity,  and  of  development. 


1 66  Outlines  of  the  History  of  Education 

(4)  Horace  Mann,1  school  administrator,  the  father  of 

normal  schools  in  the  United  States. 

(5)  David  P.  Page,  author  of  first  textbook  on   peda- 

gogy :  The  Theory  and,  Practice  of  Teach- 
ing —  first  principal  of  the  first  normal 
school  in  the  state  of  New  York,  estab- 
lished at  Albany. 

(6)  Henry  Barnard,  organizer  of  the  National  Educa- 

tional   Association    (of    teachers)  —  first 
United  States  Commissioner  of  Education 
(1867). 
b.  Germany. 

Before  1800,  14  pedagogical  seminaries  had  been  estab- 
lished —  one  in  nearly  every  state,  sup- 
ported wholly  or  partly  by  the  State. 
1807.     First    State    test    (Staatsprufung)    for    teachers 
established  by  law. 

1809.  Herbart    called    to    university    of    Kb'nigsberg, 

where  he  opened  a  pedagogical  seminary. 
Zeller,  pupil  of  Pestalozzi,  also  engaged 
in  training  of  teachers  at  Konigsberg. 
These  influences  brought  improvements 
in  the  training  of  teachers  —  new  peda- 
gogical seminaries  were  established  —  the 
old  ones  were  reorganized. 

1810.  Edict  of  1807  went  into  effect,  fixing  the  quali- 


1  (See  Davidson:  Hist.  Educ.,  246-253;  Dexter:  Hist.  Educ.  in  U.  S.,  98- 
101 ;  Graves:  Gt.  Educators  of  Three  Centuries,  249-273 ;  Hinsdale :  Horace 
Mann  6*  the  Com.  Sch.  Revival  in  U.  S.;  Hoyt :  Studies  in  Hist.  Educ.,  147-172 ; 
Mann  (Mrs.) :  Life  of  Horace  Mann;  Monroe :  Text-Bk.  in  Hist.  Educ.,  735- 
736;  Painter:  Fed.  Essays,  383-398;  U.  S.  Com'r.  Educ.  Repts.,  vs.  i :  1895- 
1896,  887-927,  by  Harris;  1896-1897,  715-767,  by  Mayo.) 


Modern  Education  167 

fications  of  teachers  and  substituting  State 
control  for  local  tests. 

1810-1849.  Ninety  pedagogical  seminaries  were  estab- 
lished. 

1826.  Staatspriifung  abolished  and  a  trial  year  (Probe- 
jahr)  substituted. 

1831.     Normal  schools  first  established. 

1874.     First  State  examination  for  women  teachers. 

1882  and  1885.     Teachers'  pension  laws. 

By  1889.     106  normal  schools  for  men,  8  for  women. 

1890.  Extra  year  of  training  added  to  preparation  of 
teachers  (Seminar -jahr)  which  preceded 
the  trial  year. 

1901.     Graduates  of   any   secondary  school   admitted 
to  State  examination  for  license  to  teach 
in  secondary  schools,  without  restriction 
as  to  particular  subjects. 
c.  France. 

1808.  Higher  normal  school  for  secondary  school 
teachers  founded. 

1814-1830.  12  normal  schools  for  elementary  school 
teachers  established. 

1833.  Every  department  was  ordered  to  establish  a 
normal  school  by  itself  or  in  conjunction 
with  one  or  more  other  departments  — 
this  resulted  in  the  establishment  of  47 
primary  normal  schools. 

1860-1863.     7  more  normal  schools  created. 

1867.  Reorganization  of  programs  of  study  —  agri- 
culture introduced  —  salaries  increased. 

1880.  First  higher  normal  school  for  girls  to  train 
teachers  for  secondary  schools. 


1 68  Outlines  of  the  History  of  Education 

1880-1882.  2  normal  schools  established,  one  for  men, 
one  for  women,  for  higher  primary  school 
teachers. 

1886.  Every  department  required  to  have  2  normal 
schools,  one  for  men,  one  for  women. 

1899.     Teachers  required  to  be  lay  teachers. 

1903.  Higher  Normal  School  made  a  part  of  the  uni- 

versity of  Paris  —  degree  of  agregation 
given  at  graduation,  entitling  the  holder 
to  position  in  secondary  school  or  to  re- 
ceive the  salary  if  no  position  be  vacant. 
d.  England  and  Scotland. 

1827.     First  normal  school  at  Glasgow. 

1839.  First  inspector  of  schools,  —  movement  begun 
to  start  a  normal  training  college  for 
teachers  in  England. 

1843.  Government  aid  given  to  provide  for  training 
colleges. 

By  1851.  25  training  colleges  had  been  established, 
offering  professional  training  to  6000  pupil- 
teachers. 

1870.  Extension  by  law  of  resources  of  training  col- 
leges. 

1890.  Special  provisions  passed  concerning  training 
colleges,  giving  them  official  standing. 
43  training  colleges  created  by  this  date, 
17  for  men,  25  for  women,  i  for  men  and 
women.  First  day-training  colleges  estab- 
lished and  attached  to  university  colleges. 

1904.  Government  contributed  25  per  cent  of  cost  of 

maintenance  of  training  colleges,  the  local 
authorities  the  remainder. 


Modern  Education  169 

1907.  Number  of  training  colleges  increased  to  74. 

1908.  Enacted  that  training  colleges  receiving  public 

grants  must  admit  one  half  of  their  pupils 
without  denominational  tests  —  also  that 
no  new  training  college  should  be  estab- 
lished unless  free  from  denominational 
instruction. 

9000  pupils  admitted    to   training  colleges  by 
free  competition. 

1909.  Government  increased  its  aid  to  support  of  train- 

ing colleges  to  75  per  cent  of  cost. 
e.  United  States. 

1823.  Private  training  school  opened  at  Concord,  Vt., 
by  Samuel  R.  Hall. 

1827.  New  York  legislature  passed  a  law  for  the  pro- 
motion of  the  training  of  teachers,  but 
it  was  ineffective. 

1831-1834.     Academies  provided  training  for  teachers. 

1839.  First  teachers'  institute,  Hartford,  Conn. 
First  normal  school,  Lexington,  Mass. 

1840.  First  teachers'  institute  in  New  York. 

1844.  First  normal  school  in  New  York,  at  Albany. 

1845.  Teachers'  institutes  held  for  the  first  time  in 

Massachusetts  and  Rhode  Island. 

1846.  Teachers'  institutes  held  for  the  first  time  in 

New  Hampshire  and  Vermont. 

1847.  Teachers'  institutes  held  for  the  first  time  in 

Maine. 
1850.     Brown  University  gave  pedagogical  courses  for 

5  years. 

1852.     Boston  City  Normal  School  founded. 
Since  1852.     Growth  of  training  schools. 
By  1875.     7°  public  normal  schools. 


170  Outlines  of  the  History  of  Ediication 

By  1800.     84  public  normal  schools,  21  city  training 
schools. 

By  1902.     108  private  normal  schools,  44  city  train- 
ing schools. 

By  1905.     535  institutions  giving  professional  courses. 

By  1910.     196  public  normal  schools. 

919  public  institutions  and  338  private  in- 
stitutions giving  professional  courses. 

1873.  Iowa  University  offered  pedagogical  courses. 

1874.  First  university  chair  in  education  at  University 

of  Michigan. 

1882.     Teachers'  reading  circles  started. 
1884.    Number  of  universities  giving  pedagogical  courses 

greatly  increased. 
By  1884.     6  universities. 
By  1893.     83  universities. 
By  1902.     247  universities. 

1888.    Teachers'  College  opened  at  Columbia  University. 
1890.     School  of  Pedagogy  opened  at  New  York  Univer- 
sity. 

1893-1895.     Committee  of  15  accomplished  the  stand- 
ardization of  the  preparatory  courses  of 
study  for  the  training  of  teachers. 
1894.    Teachers'  training  classes  organized. 
1901 .     School  of  Education  opened  at  Chicago  University. 
4.  Certification  of  teachers. 

a.  County  certification  by  examination. 

b.  State  certification  by  examination  —  of  various  grades. 

c.  Certification  by  graduation  from  normal  schools,  train- 

ing colleges,  training  schools,  and  training 
classes,  pedagogical  seminaries,  colleges, 
and  universities. 


Modern  Education  171 

5.  Generally  accepted  standard  of  preparation. 

a.  Scholarship,  both  general  and  special,  gained  by  an  aca- 

demic course  of  at  least  one  grade  higher 
than  the  grade  of  teaching  for  which  it  is 
to  qualify. 

b.  Professional  training,  including  the  study  of  psychology, 

history  and  principles  of  education,  gen- 
eral method,  special  method,  school  hy- 
giene, school  organization  and  school  man- 
agement. 

c.  Practice  teaching  and  observation. 

MODERN  SCHOOL  SYSTEMS 

(Bolton :  Sec.  Sch.  Syst.  of  Germany,  1-54 ;  Boone :  Educ.  in 
U.  S.;  Dexter:  Hist.  Educ.  in  U.  S.,  182-206;  Draper: 
Educ.  Organiz.  6*  Admins.,  in  Butler's  Educ.  in  U.  S.,  1-32 ; 
Dutton  &  Snedden :  Admins,  of  Publ.  Educ.  in  U.  S.  (see 
contents) ;  Eng.  Educ.  Dept.  Repts.,  vs.  i  (G.,  F.,  E.) ; 
2  (F.,  E.);  3  (G-);  6  (E.) ;  7  (F.);  9  (G.) ;  10  (U.  S.) ;  n 
(U.  S.);  15  (U.  S.);  16  (F.) ;  18  (F.) ;  20  (G.) ;  21  (E.); 
22  (G.,  F.)  ;  24  (F.) ;  Farrington :  French  Sec.  Schs.,  84-122  ; 
Kemp:  Hist.  Educ.,  304-305,  325,  343~344  (F.),  305-30?, 
324-325,  338-340,  343  (E.),  302-303,  323-326,  344-345  (G.), 
310-311,  314-315,  3*9-321,  327-332,  334,  337-338,  345-348 
(U.  S.) ;  Monroe:  Text-Bk.  in  Hist.  Educ.,  729-731  (G),  731- 
733  (F-),  733-734  (E.),  734-739  (U.  S.),  Brief  Course 
386-388  (G.),  388-389  (F.),  389-391  (E.),  391-393  (U.  S.); 
Painter:  Hist.  Educ.,  ist  ed.,  291-296  (G.),  296-302  (F.), 
320-325  (E.),  2d  ed.,  356-362  (G.),  363-370  (F.),  371-391 
(E.),  391-394  (U.  S.) ;  Parsons:  Prussian  Schs.  seen  thro' 
Amer.  Eyes,  French  Schs.  seen  thro'  Amer.  Eyes;  Perry:  Out- 


172  Outlines  of  the  History  of  Education 

lines  of  Sch.  Admins.;  Prince:  Meths.  of  Instr.  &•  Organiz.  of 
Schs.  of  Germany  (see  contents) ;  Russell :  Germ.  Higher  Schs., 
108-155;  Seeley:  Hist.  Educ.,  289-295  (G.),  296-303  (F.), 
309-314  (U.  S.) ;  Sharpless:  Eng.  Educ.,  16-51,  75  ff . ;  U.  S. 
Com'r  Educ.  Repts.,  vs.  i:  1888-1889,  32-77  (G.,  F.),  77-111 
(E.),  112-149  (F-)  5  1889-1890,  455-464  (G.) ;  1890-1891,  125- 
134  (E.);  1891-1892,  73-95  (F.) ;  1892-1893,  208-218  (E.), 
1268-1275  (U.  S.);  1894-1895,  257-273  (E.),  289-312  (F.), 
583-712  (E.);  1895-1896,  79-135  (E.),  611-639  (F.);  1896- 
1897,  29-70  (F.) ;  1897-1898,  3-82  (G.),  133-167  (E.),  694-701 
(F.) ;  1898-1899,  3-65  (E.),  357-450  (U.  S.) ;  1890-1900,  284- 
302,  427-537  (U.  S.) ;  1901,  1-128  (G.),  939-iooS  (E.) ;  1902, 
647-666  (F.),  1001-1068  (E.);  1906,  35  ff.  (G.);  v.  2:  1899- 
1900,  1712-1732  (F.).) 

Germany  (Prussian  System  taken  as  the  Type) 

i.  Administration. 

a.  Minister  of  education  appointed  by  the  Crown. 

(1)  Supervision  of  all  schools  public  and  private. 

(2)  Assistants  —  2. 

(3)  Counselors  —  19. 

(4)  Departments  of  Inspection. 

b.  Provincial  school  boards  —  13. 

(1)  Secondary  school  affairs  and  normal  schools. 

(2)  Trained  inspectors  (3  or  5)  appointed  by  Crown. 

c.  Examination  commission. 

(1)  Certification  of  secondary  school  teachers. 

(2)  Experts  in  education  (10  to  20)  appointed  by  the 

minister. 

d.  Supervision  of  religious  affairs. 

(i)  General  superintendent  of  the  Evangelical  Church 
in  each  province. 


Modern  Education  173 

(2)  Catholic  bishops. 
e.  City  school  boards. 

(1)  Municipally  supported  schools. 

(2)  Members  of  city  council  (i  to  3). 

(3)  Limit  supervision. 
/.   District  school  boards. 

(1)  Limited  to  districts  within  provinces. 

(2)  Inspectors  of  school  work. 
g.  Local  school  boards. 

(1)  Inspection  of  school  property. 

(2)  Little  supervision  of  school  work. 
Kinds  of  schools. 

a.  Kindergartens. 

b.  Public  elementary  schools  (  Volkschulen) . 
(i)  Special  features. 

(a)  Compulsory  —  6  to  14  years  of  age. 

(b)  Free  through  elementary  grade. 

(c)  Religious  instruction  included. 

(d)  State-governed. 

c.  Continuation  schools. 

(i)  For   instruction   in   trades,   industries,    commerce, 
agriculture,  and  general  subjects. 

d.  Secondary  schools. 

(1)  g-year  classical  school  (gymnasium). 

(2)  g-year  Latin-scientific  school  (realgymnasium) . 

(3)  9-year  non-classical  school  (oberrealschule). 

(4)  6-year  non-classical  school  (realschide) . 

(5)  Q-year    modern-language    school    for   girls    (hohere 

mddchenschule) . 

(6)  5-6-year  classical  school  for  girls  (madchengymna- 

sium). 

e.  Training  schools  for  teachers. 


174  Outlines  of  the  History  of  Education 

(1)  Normal    schools,    to    prepare    elementary    school 

teachers. 

(2)  Gymnasial  seminaries,  to  prepare  secondary  school 

teachers. 

(3)  Elementary  school  seminaries,  to  prepare  for  ele- 

mentary teaching. 

(4)  University  seminaries,  for  more  scientific  study  of 

education  —  may  prepare  for  any  grade  of 
school. 

(5)  In  each,  one  year  is  devoted  to  theory  and  one  year 

to  practice. 
/.   Universities. 
g.  Higher  professional  and  technical  schools. 

France 
i.  Administration. 

a.  Minister  of  Public  Instruction  and  Fine  Arts. 

(1)  Departments    of   primary,   secondary,   and    higher 

education  and  finance. 

(2)  Higher  council,  a  general  advisory  board. 

(3)  Many  special  boards  and  commissions. 

(4)  State  inspectors,  responsible  to  the  minister. 

b.  Seventeen  administrative  districts  (academies). 

(1)  Each  having  a  university  and  associated  lycees  and 

communal   colleges,  under    supervision    of    a 
rector  and  an  academic  council. 

(2)  Primary  instruction  in  each  being  supervised  by  an 

academic  inspector  appointed  by  the  minister, 
with  aid  of  primary  inspectors. 

c.  Ninety  departements,  for  the  administration  of  primary 

education, 
(i)  Prefect  of  the  department. 


Modern  Education  175 

(2)  School  boards. 

(3)  Inspectors,  the  academic  inspector  being  the  chief, 

with  assistants  in  each  department. 

d.  Communal  school  boards. 

(i)  To  manage  school  buildings  and  school  funds  of  the 
district. 

e.  Local  school  committees. 

(i)  To  encourage  attendance  and  to  promote  general 

interest. 
/.   State  control  highly  centralized. 

(1)  Minister  absolute. 

(2)  Appointment  of  teachers. 

(3)  Salaries  and  pensions. 

(4)  Programs  of  study. 

(5)  Supervision  of  private  as  well  as  public  instruction. 
Kinds  of  schools. 

a.  Schools  for  beginners. 

(1)  Maternal  schools  (ecoles  maternelles)   for  pupils  of 

both  sexes  from  2  to  6  years  of  age. 

(2)  Infant  schools  (classes  enfantines)  for  pupils  of  both 

sexes  from  4  to  7  years  of  age. 

b.  Primary  schools. 

(1)  Lower   primary   schools    (ecoles   primaires   elemen- 

taires). 

(a)  One  in  each  commune  for  boys  and  one  for  girls. 
(6)  Attendance,  from  6  to  13  years  of  age. 

(c)  Certificate  of  graduation  necessary  to  admit  to 

all  higher  schools. 

(d)  Complementary  courses  (cours  complementaires) , 

covering  from  i  to  2  years  in  connection  with 
many  lower  primary  schools. 

(2)  Higher  primary  schools  (ecoles  primaires  superieures) . 


176  Outlines  of  the  History  of  Education 

(a)  Pupils,  10  to  18  years  of  age,  admitted  on  cer- 
tificate of  lower  school. 
(&)   Course  from  2  to  4  years  in  length. 
(3)  Rural  schools  —  of  elementary  grade. 

c.  Industrial  and  technical  schools. 

(1)  Communal  or  departmental  schools. 
(a)  Manual  training  and  trades. 

(2)  National  professional  schools. 

(a)  Commerce,  industries,  and  agriculture. 

(3)  Special  technical  schools. 

d.  Secondary  schools. 

(1)  Lycees  —  State  schools. 

(2)  Colleges  —  municipal  or  communal  schools. 

(3)  Different  schools  of  each  kind  for  boys  and  for  girls. 

e.  Normal  schools. 

(1)  Primary  normal  schools  (ecoles  nor  males  primaires) 

(a)  Elementary,    for    teachers    in    lower    primary 

schools,  two  in  each  department,  one  for  men 
and  one  for  women. 

(b)  Higher,  for  teachers  in  elementary  normal  schools 

and  in  higher  primary   schools,    two  in  all 
France,  one  for  men  and  one  for  women. 

(2)  Higher  normal  school  (ecole  normale  superieure) . 

(a)  One  only,  located  at  Paris,  for  secondary  school 

teachers  in  lyce.es. 

(b)  University  teachers  are  drawn  from  the  ranks 

of  secondary  school  teachers. 
/.   Higher  schools  (ecoles  superieures) . 
(a)  Fifteen  universities. 
(&)  Higher  professional  and  technical  schools. 


Modern  Education  177 

England 

Administration. 

a.  The  Education  Department,  established  in  1900. 

(1)  Controls  government  grants  for  education. 

(2)  Provides  inspectors  for  elementary,  secondary,  and 

technical  schools. 
6.  Local  boards. 

(1)  Distribute  government  grants. 

(2)  Raise  other  school  funds  by  local  taxation. 

(3)  Have  direct  conduct  of  the  schools. 

(a)  Through  school  committee. 

(b)  Through  inspectors. 
Kinds  of  schools. 

a.  Infant  schools  (ages  3  to  7  years). 

6.  Elementary  schools  (ages  above  7  years) . 

(1)  Instruction  compulsory  between  5  and  14  years  of 

age  —  practically  free  but  not  entirely,  and 
non-sectarian. 

(2)  "  Voluntary  schools  "   —  church  schools,  supported 

by  vested  funds  and  voluntary  subscriptions. 

(3)  "  Board  schools  "   —  under  local  school  boards,  sup- 

ported by  State  grants  and  local  taxation. 

c.  Technical  schools. 

(1)  To  provide  training  for  trades,  art,  science,  agri- 

culture, and  commerce. 

(2)  Carried  on  by  the  Science  and  Art  Department, 

by  guilds,  by  municipalities,  by  colleges,  by 
philanthropic  and  religious  associations. 

d.  Secondary  schools, 
(i)  Public. 

(a)  Supplementary  work  in  elementary  schools. 


178  Outlines  of  the  History  of  Education 

(b)  Evening  schools. 

(c}  Technical  schools. 

(d)  Municipal  high  schools. 

(e)  Scholarships  offered  by  boards. 

(/)    Government  grants  for  private  secondary  schools. 
(2)  Private. 

(a)  "  Grammar  schools  "  —  scientific  and  classical. 

(b)  "  Public  schools  "  —  mainly  classical. 

(c)  High  schools  for  girls. 
e.  Teachers'  training  colleges. 

(i)  Separate  colleges  for  men  (17)  and  for  women  (25) 

and  one  for  both. 
/.   Higher  schools. 

(i)  Colleges  and  universities. 

United  States 

i.  Administration. 

a.  National  bureau  of  education,  a  division  of  the  Depart- 

ment of  the  Interior. 

(1)  No  authority  over  schools. 

(2)  A  bureau  of  statistics. 

(3)  Issues  reports  upon  investigations. 

b.  State  organization  and  administration. 

(1)  Commissioner  or  superintendent  or  board  of  regents 

or  board  of  education. 

(2)  Deputy    officials,    inspectors,    secretaries,    county 

superintendents,     district     superintendents, 
boards  of   trustees. 

(3)  City  superintendents  and  boards  of  education. 

(4)  Expert  supervision. 

(a)  General  organization  and  administration. 


Modern  Education  179 

(6)  Subject  matter  and  methods  of  study. 
(c)  Local  administration  through  supervising  teach- 
ers. 
c.  Kinds  of  schools. 

(1)  Kindergartens. 

(2)  Elementary  schools. 

(a)  Primary  grades  (4). 

(b)  Grammar  grades  (4) . 

(c)  Free,  compulsory  (from  yth  or  8th  to  i3th  or 

i4th  or  1 6th  year)  —  publicly  supported  — 
non-sectarian. 

(3)  Secondary  schools. 

(a)  Public  high  schools. 

x.  Classical,  English,  commercial,  manual  train- 
ing, industrial,  technical. 

y.  Free,  publicly  supported,  non-sectarian. 
(6)  Private  or  endowed  schools  and  academies. 

x.  Classical,  scientific,  college-preparatory. 

(4)  Training  schools  for  teachers. 
(a)  State  supported. 

x.  Normal  schools  and  colleges. 
y.  Institutes  and  training  classes. 
z.  Teachers'  associations. 
(6)  Municipally  supported. 

x.  Training  schools  and  classes. 

(c)  In  universities. 

x.  Departments  of  education. 
y.  Professional  training  schools. 

(d)  Private  normal  and  training  schools. 

(5)  Colleges  and  universities. 

(a)  State  and  city  supported. 

(b)  Denominational. 


180  Outlines  of  the  History  of  Education 

(c)  Privately  endowed. 

(d)  Technical  and  professional. 
(6)  Special  schools. 

(a)  For  law,  medicine,  and  theology. 

(b)  Institutes  of  science  and  technology. 

(c)  For  defectives. 

(d)  Trades  schools. 

(e)  For  the  negroes  and  the  Indians. 


(Adams :  Free  Schools  in  the  U.  S.;  Boese :  Publ.  Educ.  in  tne 
City  of  N.  Y.;  Boone :  Educ.  in  the  U.  S.;  Bourne :  Hist,  of 
Publ.  Sch.  Soc.  of  City  of  N.  Y.;  Brown  (E.  E.) :  The  Making 
of  Our  Middle  Schools;  Brown  (J.  F.) :  The  Am.  High  Sch.,  i- 
38;  Dexter:  Hist.  Educ.  in  U.  S.,  12-23,  ?6~79,  94~Q6,  471- 
495 ;  Draper :  Publ.  Sch.  Pioneering  in  N.  Y.  6*  Mass.,  in 
Educ.  Rev.,  Ill,  313-336  (Apr.,  '92) ;  IV,  241-252  (Oct.,  '92) ; 
V,  345-362  (Apr.,  '93) ;  VIII,  112-115  (Sept.,  '93) ;  Dutton  & 
Snedden:  Adm.  of  Publ.  Educ.  in  U.  S.,  37,  67-69,  124-132  ; 
Finegan :  New  York  School  Law,  9,  u,  12, 1 6,  25,  31,  58,  164-168, 
192,  222,  239,  243,  252,  276,  280;  Hinsdale:  Horace  Mann  6* 
the  Common  Sch.  Revival  in  U.  S.;  Martin  :  Publ.  Sch.  Pioneer- 
ing in  N.  Y.  &•  Mass.,  in  Educ.  Rev.,  IV,  34-36  (June,  '92) ;  V, 
232-242  (Mch.,  '93) ;  Mann  (Mrs.)  :  Life  of  Horace  Mann; 
Millar :  The  Sch.  Syst.  of  the  St.  of  N.  Y.;  Porter :  Am. 
Colleges  &*  the  Am.  Public;  Randall :  Hist,  of  the  Com.  Sch. 
Syst.  of  the  St.  of  N.  Y.  since  1795  ;  Sherwood :  The  Univ.  of  the 
St.  of  N.  Y.  (circ.  of  inf.  no.  3,  1900,  publ.  by  U.  S.  Bureau  of 
Educ.);  Thwing:  Am.  Colleges;  U.  S.  Educ.  Dept.  Repts., 
1892-1893, v. 2, 1268-1275;  1899-1900,  v.  i,  284-302,427-537.) 


Modern  Education  181 

In  Colonial  Times  under  the  Dutch 

1629.     First  official  act  to  provide  the  means  of  supporting  a 
minister  and  a  schoolmaster. 

1633.     First  public  school  (elementary)  established  at  New 
Amsterdam,  Adam  Roelandsen,  teacher. 

1642.     Several  private  schools  started. 

1659.     First  Latin  school,  Dr.  Alexander  Carolus  Curtius, 

teacher. 

These  schools  were  supported  by  subscription,  by  taxa- 
tion, and  by  tuition  fees.  The  teachers  were  poorly 
qualified  and  poorly  paid;  often  were  brought  over 
from  Holland. 

In  Colonial  Times  under  the  English 

1702.     First  English  school. 

Dutch  schools  had  disappeared  for  the  most  part,  and 

the  English  were  slow  to  start  new  ones,  not  wholly 

favoring  popular  education. 
1732.     First  Latin  school  of  the  English  —  designed  to  give 

instruction  in  Latin,   Greek,   and    mathematics  - 

supported  by  public  taxation  —  instruction  free. 
1754.     King's  College  in  New  York  City  chartered. 
1767.     Medical  department  added  to  King's  College. 

Up  to  1775,  the  elementary  schools  of  New  York  City 

were  fostered  by  the  Society  for  the  Propagation  of 

the  Gospel. 

As  an  Independent  State 

1784.     First  State  supervision  of  education  provided,  by  the 
creation  of  the  "  Regents  of  the  University  of  the 


1 82  Outlines  of  the  History  of  Education 

State  of  New  York."  Originally  designed  to  be  the 
directing  board  of  King's  College. 

1786.  Unappropriated  State  lands  were  set  apart  for  a  "  lit- 

erature "  fund  and  for  a  "  gospel  and  school "  fund. 
Revenue  from  this  source  was  later  used  for  the 
maintenance  of  schools.  Special  appropriations  were 
also  made  to  help  the  private  academies,  of  which 
there  had  been  a  considerable  number  established. 

1787.  King's  College  granted  new  charter  and  name  changed 

to  Columbia  College. 

Board  of  Regents  reorganized  and  powers  enlarged  to 
include  supervision  of  all  matters  relating  to  private 
educational  institutions  of  the  State. 

1795.     Union  College,  at  Schenectady,  founded. 

General  school  law  passed,  encouraging  the  establish- 
ment of  schools  and  prescribing  the  instruction  in 
"  English  grammar,  arithmetic,  mathematics,  and 
such  other  branches  of  knowledge  as  are  most  useful 
and  necessary  to  a  good  education." 
Town  commissioners  provided,  but  without  salary. 

1795-1800.  JLaw  enacted  appropriating  $50,000  a  year  for 
five  years  toward  the  support  of  the  common  schools. 
Although  not  continued  after  1800,  in  the  belief  that 
some  religious  societies  should  support  the  schools, 
nevertheless  this  law  was  the  first  definite  step  in  the 
working  out  of  the  State  educational  system.  By 
this  time  there  were  nearly  1400  public  schools  and 
over  60,000  pupils. 

1 80 1.  A  permanent  common  School  fund  was  established  by 
law  from  the  sale  of  public  lands,  set  apart  in  1786. 

1  There  is  uncertainty  about  this  appropriation ;  Mr.  Dexter  states  that  the 
amount  was  $100,000.     (Cf.  Dexter :  Hist,  of  Educ.  in  U.  S.,  p.  77.) 


Modern  Education  183 

1802.    United  States  Military  Academy  started  at  West  Point. 

1805.  The  Public  School  Society  of  the  City  of  New  York 
was  chartered  to  establish  free  schools  for  the  poor  — 
it  controlled  the  public  schools  in  New  York  City 
until  1853. 

1812.  Hamilton  College  founded  at  Clinton. 

Law  enacted  that  State  would  give  aid  to  schools  to  an 
amount  equal  to  that  which  the  district  raised  by 
taxation  —  continued  in  force  up  to  1840. 

Office  of  State  "  Superintendent  of  Common  Schools  " 
created,  to  take  charge  of  the  public  school  system. 

1813.  Gideon  Hawley  appointed  first  State  Superintendent. 

Also  paid  township  commissioners,  whose  duties  were 
the  inspection  of  schools  and  the  examination  of 
teachers.  State  was  divided  into  districts  for  school 
purposes.  School  funds  were  distributed  on  a  per 
capita  basis  of  school  population. 

1817.  New  York  Academy  of  Science  established. 

1818.  Joseph  Lancaster,  Englishman,  came  to  New  York  and 

aided  in  starting  schools  on  the  monitorial  plan. 
1821.     Office  of  State  Superintendent  was  abolished  and  Secre- 
tary of  State  was  charged  with  the  direction  of  the 
schools. 

1823.  Brooklyn  Academy  of  Arts  and  Science  founded. 

1824.  Albany  Institute  established. 

1825.  Rensselaer  Polytechnic  Institute  founded. 

1827.  First  law  relating  to  the  training  of  teachers  was  ineffec- 
tive. This  work  was  being  done  by  the  academies, 
by  special  appropriations  of  the  school  funds  made 
annually  up  to  1844. 

1830.  State  convention  of  teachers  at  Utica. 

1831.  The   Canandaigua  and  St.   Lawrence  academies  re- 


184  Outlines  of  the  History  of  Education 

ported  "  principles  of  teaching  "  as  among  the  sub- 
jects offered.  By  1834,  three  other  academies 
maintained  similar  courses. 

1834.  Teachers'  training  classes  organized. 

1835.  System  of  school  district  libraries  begun. 

1836.  Fund  granted  to  New  York  as  one  among  the  several 

states  by  the  United  States  government,  under 
President  Jackson,  from  surplus  in  treasury  —  the 
income  of  this  fund  was  applied  to  public  education. 
1841.  Office  of  Deputy  Superintendent  of  Common  Schools 
for  each  county  created. 

1843.  First  teachers'  institute  held  at  Ithaca. 

Name  of  Deputy  changed  to  County  Superintendent 
of  Common  Schools  —  office  discontinued  in  1847. 

Offices  of  Town  Commissioner  and  Town  Inspector 
abolished  and  that  of  Town  Superintendent  created. 

1844.  Founding  at  Albany  of  the  first  normal  school. 

1847.     Money    appropriated    for    the    support    of    teachers' 

institutes. 

1849.     System  of  free  schools  established  for  the  entire  state. 
1851.     New  York  University  founded. 
Rochester  University  founded. 

First  institution  for  the  feeble-minded  established  at 
Syracuse. 

1853.  First  act  providing  for  union  free  schools. 

1854.  Office  of  State  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction 

re-established  under  this  new  name. 

1854.  Victor  M.  Rice,  first  appointee. 

1874.  Abraham  B.  Weaver. 

1876.  Neil  Gilmore. 

1886.  Andrew  S.  Draper. 

1892.  James  F.  Crooker. 

1895.  Charles  R.  Skinner. 


Modern  Education  185 

1854.  College  of  the  City  of  New  York  founded  as  part  of 

the  school  system  of  New  York  City  —  for  city 
residents  only  —  supported  by  municipal  taxation. 

1855.  Elmira  College  for  women  founded. 

1856.  Office  of  school  commissioner  established. 

1863.  Oswego  Normal  School  opened. 

1864.  Consolidated  School  Act  providing  for  union  of  weak 

schools  to  make  single  strong  one. 

1865.  Vassar  College  for  women  founded. 

1866.  Normal  Schools  established  at  Brockport,  Fredonia, 

Cortland,  and  Potsdam. 

1867.  Free  school  fund  established. 
Money  raised  by  taxation. 

Normal  Schools  established  at  Buffalo  and  Geneseo. 

1868.  Cornell  University  founded  as  result  of  national  land 

grant  of  1862  and  authorized  to  provide  thereafter 
annually,  under  Act  of  1865,  free  tuition  to  one  resi- 
dent of  each  assembly  district  of  the  State. 
System  of  free  schools  (established  in   1849)  in  full 
operation. 

1870.  Normal  College  of  the  City  of  New  York  opened. 

1871.  Syracuse  University  founded. 

1872.  First  kindergarten  started  privately  in  New  York  City 

by  Miss  Krauss-Boelte  —  also  private  institution 
for  training  kindergarten  teachers,  which  has  since 
become  one  of  the  leading  training  schools  for  kinder- 
gartners. 

1874.  Compulsory  education  law  enacted,  fixing  the  age  at 

from  8  to  14  years  —  not  properly  enforced. 

1875.  Examinations   for   State   Teachers'   Certificates    first 

instituted. 

1878.     Chautauqua  movement  started. 
1885.     Normal  School  established  at  New  Paltz. 


1 86  Outlines  of  the  History  of  Education 

1887.  Normal  School  established  at  Oneonta. 

1888.  Teachers  College  opened  at  Columbia  University. 

1889.  Barnard    College   for   women   founded   at   Columbia 

University. 

Corporate  name  of  "  Board  of  Regents  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  the  State  of  New  York "  changed  by 
legislature  to  "  University  of  State  of  New  York." 

School  year  lengthened  from  28  weeks  to  32  weeks. 

Normal  School  established  at  Plattsburg. 

1890.  School  of  Pedagogy  opened  at  New  York  University. 

1891.  Normal  School  at  Albany  reorganized  into  the  State 
Normal  College,  designed  to  do  professional  work  only. 

1894.  Compulsory  education  law,  fixing  the  school  age  at 
from  7  to  14  years  and  also  from  14  to  16  years  for 
all  "  who  are  not  regularly  employed  or  lawfully 
engaged  in  any  useful  employment  or  service." 

1900.  School  authorities  of  cities  and  incorporated  villages 
prohibited  from  establishing  special  schools  for 
colored  children ;  and  it  was  enacted  that  no  person 
should  be  refused  admission  into  or  be  excluded  from 
any  public  school  on  account  of  race  or  color. 

1904.  Unification  law,  consolidating  the  Board  of  Regents 
and  the  Department  of  Public  Instruction,  and 
creating  the  office  of  Commissioner  of  Education. 
Andrew  S.  Draper  the  first  commissioner. 

1910.  Office  of  school  commissioner  abolished  and  that  of 
district  superintendent  created. 

Statistics  of  New  York  State  Education  for  1909 

i.  Elementary  education. 

a.  Number  of  common  schools,  12,069. 


Modern  Education  187 

b.  Number  of  students,  1,386,712. 

c.  Estimated  number  of  students  in  private  elementary 

schools,  267,800. 

2.  Secondary  education. 

a.  Number  of  high  schools,  692. 

6.  Number  of  students  in  high  schools,  107,090. 

c.  Number  of  academies,  162. 

d.  Number  of  students  in  academies,  14,510. 

3.  Higher  education. 

a.  Number  of  institutions,  75. 

(1)  Universities,  7. 

(2)  Colleges,  33. 

(3)  Professional  schools,  18. 

(4)  Normal  schools,  10. 

(5)  Technical  schools,  7. 

b.  Number  of  students,  36,287. 

c.  Some  of  the  well-known  institutions:  — 

Alfred  Cornell  Rochester 

Barnard  Elmira  Union 

Brooklyn  Poly-  Fordham  St.  Stephen's 

technic  Hamilton  Syracuse 

Clarkson  Manhattan  Vassar 

Colgate  New  York  University 

Columbia  Rensselaer  Polytechnic 

Institutions  in  New  York  State  for  the  Training  of  Teachers 

1.  Normal  College  at  Albany. 

2.  Normal  schools  at 

Brockport      Cortland      Geneseo  Oneonta      Plattsburg 

Buffalo  Fredonia      New  Paltz      Oswego        Potsdam 


1 88  Outlines  of  the  History  of  Education 

3.  Schools  of  pedagogy  and  pedagogical  departments  in  col- 

leges and  universities. 

4.  Teachers'  training  schools  and  classes. 

5.  Teachers'  institutes  (discontinued  in  1911). 

Means  of  Support  of  New  York  State  Schools 

1.  The  Common  School  Fund:    created  in   1805,   resulting 

from  the  sale  of  vacant  and  unappropriated  lands  — 
this  revenue  was  first  realized  in  1815  and  then  provided 
one  half  of  the  amount  expended  on  the  schools,  the  other 
half  being  raised  by  local  taxation.  Original  fund  in 
1805,  $59,000 ;  value  in  1910,  $4,773,000.  Now  annually 
appropriated  for  the  common  schools,  $170,000. 

2.  The  United  States  Deposit  Fund :   created  in  1836  by  the 

distribution  among  the  states  by  the  National  govern- 
ment for  safe-keeping  of  surplus  revenues  in  the  United 
States  treasury.  It  is  subject  to  recall,  although  prob- 
ably will  never  be  claimed.  New  York  received  $4,000,000 
and  appropriated  it  for  school  purposes,  the  annual 
amount  from  1838  to  1881  being  $165,000;  since  1881, 
$75,000. 

3.  The  Free  School  Fund:   created  by  direct  State  tax,  first 

levied  in  1851,  when  $800,000  were  raised.  This  amount 
has  since  greatly  increased  and  been  added  to  by  indirect 
taxation,  so  that  now  it  is  not  denominated  the  free- 
school  fund,  but  the  legislature  makes  annual  appropria- 
tions for  the  support  of  common  schools.  $47,918,427.98 
were  raised  in  this  way  in  1909. 

4.  The  Gospel  and  School  Lands  Fund :  created  from  the  sale 

of  lands  originally  set  apart  in  1784  for  the  support  of  a 
minister  of  the  gospel  and  for  the  use  of  a  public  school. 


Modern  Education  189 

The  amount  of  land  was  changed  in  1786  and  again  in 
1789,  then  ordered  rented  and  sold,  creating  an  income 
which  by  authority  of  the  legislature  has  been  applied  to 
the  support  of  the  public  schools.  In  1910,  the  amount 
realized  was  $26,614.82. 

The  Literature  Fund  :  created  in  1786,  by  act  ordering  the 
sale  of  unappropriated  lands  and  the  use  of  the  money  for 
the  promotion  of  literature  in  the  state.  The  fund  was 
increased  by  subsequent  acts  of  similar  character,  bring- 
ing the  total  up  to  $284,201.32  in  1910. 


INDEX 


Abelard,  Peter,  58. 
Academy, 

At  Athens,  26. 

Plato's,  26. 

In  England,  158,  161. 

In  United  States,  159,  162. 

Training  of  teachers  in,  169. 
Administration  of  School  Systems,  172-180. 

In  England,  177. 

In  France,  175. 

In  Germany,  173. 

In  United  States,  170. 
jEschylus,  32. 
Agricola,  Rudolph,  69,  71. 
Albertus  Magnus,  58. 
Alcuin,  52. 
Aldhelm,  50. 

Alexandria,  University  of,  35. 
Alfred,  King  of  England,  53. 
America,  Academies  in,  159,  162. 

Public  elementary  education  in,  149,  153. 

Systems  of  education,  153,  179. 

Secondary  education,  159,  162,  179. 

Professional  training  of  teachers,  169. 
Anselm,  58. 

Apperception,  Herbart's  theory  of,  133. 
Aquinas,  Thomas,  58. 
Arab  learning,  60. 
Aristophanes,  33. 
Aristotle,  30-32. 
Arnauld,  91. 
Ascham,  Roger,  69,  75. 
Athens,  education  at,  17,  19. 

University  of,  34. 

Bacon,  Francis,  103-105. 

Barnard,  Henry,  155. 

Barzizza,  68,  70. 

Basedow,  Johann  Bernard,  126-128. 

Bede,  the  Venerable,  50. 

Bell,  monitorial  system,  150,  152. 

"  Board"  schools,  177. 

Boards,  school,  171-180. 


Boccaccio,  68,  70. 
Boethius,  writings  of,  50. 
Bologna,  University  of,  64. 
Brethren  of  Christian  schools,  92. 
Brethren  of  Common  Life,  68. 
Burgher  schools,  59. 

Calvin,  John,  82. 
Capella,  Martian,  50. 
Cassiodorus,  50. 
Caste  system,  in  China,  3. 

In  India,  7. 

Catechetical  schools,  46. 
Catechumenal  schools,  46. 
Cathedral  schools,  47. 
Certification  of  teachers,  170. 
Champeaux,  William  of,  58. 
Charlemagne,  51. 
Chinese  education,  3-6. 
Chivalry,  54-56. 

Christian  education,  early,  44-47. 
Christian  Brothers'  schools,  92. 
Chrysippus,  33- 
Chrysoloras,  68,  70. 
Cicero,  39. 
Ciceronianism,  69. 
Classical  schools,  73,  77,  82,  86. 
Colet,  John,  69,  75. 

Colleges,  168, 170,  174,  176,  178,  179.  181- 
188. 

Communal,  159,  174,  176. 
Columbia  University,  182. 
Comenius,  John  Amos,  108-112. 
Commissioner  of  Education,  187. 
Communal  colleges,  159,  174,  176. 
Compulsory  education,  n,  34,  77.  93.  i5*~ 

155.  173,  177,  179,  185,  186. 
Comte,  sociological  theory  of,  143. 
Connecticut,  development  of  education  in, 

154- 

Contents,  xi. 

Continuation  schools,  173. 
Counter-reformation,  83-88. 


IQI 


Index 


Da  Feltre,  Vittorino,  68,  71. 

Dante,  68,  69. 

Demosthenes,  33. 

Development,  130,  133,  137,  139,  143. 

Of  public  elementary  education,  147-155. 

Of  secondary  education,  156-163. 

Of  professional  training  of  teachers,  164- 
171. 

Of  education  in  the  nineteenth  century, 

140,  151-155.  159-163,  165-171. 
Dewey,  sociological  theory  of,  143. 
Disciplinary  education,  112-115. 
Discipline,  formal,  32,  112,  139. 
District  of  Columbia,  153. 

Early  Christian  education,  44-47- 
Egyptian  education,  1-3. 
Elementary    education,     development    of 
,      public,  147-155. 
Entile,  Rousseau's,  123. 
England,  education  in,  53,  75,  77,  98,  102, 
103,  112,  140,  150,  152,  157,  158,  161, 

164,  168,  177. 
Epicurus,  33. 
Episcopal  schools,  47. 
Erasmus,  Desiderius,  69,  73. 
Euripides,  33. 

Family  in  education,  4,  9,  u,  17,  35,  36, 

79,  in,  131, 138. 
Fenelon,  91,  118. 
Formal  discipline,  32,  112,  139. 
France,  education  in,  64,  83-93,  97,   i°°> 

103,  118-127,  149-151,  157,  159,  164- 

165,  175-176- 
Francke,  Hermann,  115-118. 

Free  schools,  79, 147-155, 163, 173, 177,  179, 

181-189. 
Froebel,  Friedrich  W.  A.,  135-139- 

Gate    of    Tongues     Unlocked,    Comenius', 

109. 
Germany,  education  in,  71-74,  78-82,  106- 

112,  115-118,  132-139,  148,  151,  157, 

158,   160,   165-168,   172-174. 
"Grammar   schools,"  77,   162,    178,    179, 

1 86. 

Great  Didactic,  Comenius',  109. 
Greek  education,  13-35- 
Guild  schools,  59. 
Gymnasien,  74,  77,  82,  in,  117,  157,  160, 

161,  173. 


Hanlin  or  Imperial  Academy,  5. 
Hebrew  education,  9-11. 
Hegius,  Alexander,  69,  72. 
Herbart,  John  Frederick,  132-135. 
Herodotus,  33. 
High  schools,  in  England,  178. 

In  United  States,  162,  163,  179,  187. 
Hindu  education,  7-9. 
Historic  Greek  education,  15-19. 
Holland,  education  in,  71,  77,  148. 
Homeric  education,  14. 
Howerth,  sociological  theory  of,  143. 
Humanistic  education,  67,  69. 

Illinois,  development  of  education  in,  155. 

India,  education  in,  7-9. 

Indiana,  development  of  education  in,  155. 

Individualism,  44,  121. 

Industrial  education,  144. 

Infant  schools,  in,  138,  175,  177. 

Innovators  of  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth 

centuries,  105-115. 
Introduction,  xv. 
Isidore  de  Seville,  50. 
Isocrates,  33. 
Italy,  renaissance  in,  67-71. 

Jansenists,  The,  89-91. 

Janua  (Gate  of  Tongues  Unlocked),  109. 

Jesuit  schools,  83-88. 

Jewish  education,  9-11. 

Kindergarten,  135. 

Knight,  education  of  the,  54-56. 

Lancaster,  monitorial  system  of,  150,  152, 

iS3,  183. 
Lancelot,  91. 
La  Fontaine,  91. 
La  Salle,  Jean  Baptiste  de,  92. 
Latin  Grammar  schools,  161,  181. 
Locke,  John,  112. 
Lombard,  Peter,  58. 
Loyola,  Ignatius,  83,  84. 
Luther,  Martin,  78-80. 
Lycees,  159,  176. 
Lycurgus,  32. 

Madchengymnasium,  161. 
Magnus,  Albertus,  58. 
Mann,  Horace,  166. 
Martian  Capella,  50. 


Index 


193 


Massachusetts,  development  of  education 

in,  154. 

Maurus,  Kabanus,  53. 
Medieval  education,  44-64. 
Melancthon,  Philip,  80-82. 
Method  in  education,  128-139. 
Middle  Ages,  education  in,  44-64. 
Milton,  John,  98. 
Minister  of  education,  172,  174. 
Mississippi,  development  of  education  in, 

155- 

Modern  education,  94  ff. 
Modern  systems  of  education,  171-180. 
Mohammedan  learning,  60. 
Monastic  education,  47-50. 
Monastic  schools,  49. 
Monasticism,  47-50. 
Monitorial  system,  150,  152,  153,  183. 
Montaigne,  Michael  de,  100-102. 
Mulcaster,  Richard,  102. 

Naturalistic  education,  121-128. 

Nature,  education  according  to,  121-128. 

Neander,  Michael,  83. 

Negative  education,  124. 

New  York,  history  of  education  in  the  state 

of,  180-189. 
Nineteenth  century  education,  140,  151- 

155.  159-163,  165-171. 

Occam,  William  of,  58. 

Ohio,  development  of  education  in,  155. 

Oratory,  39-42. 

Oratorians,  schools  of  the,  89. 

Orbis  jrictus,  109,  no. 

Oriental  education,  1-12. 

Oxford  university,  54. 

Palatine  school,  the,  51. 

Paris,  University  of,  64. 

Pascal,  91. 

Persian  education,  11-12. 

Pestalozzi,  John  Henry,  128-132. 

Peter  Lombard,  58. 

Petrarch,  68,  70. 

Philanthropinum,  the,  126. 

Philosophical  schools,  34. 

Pietism,  115,  116. 

Plato,  26-29. 

Politics  of  Aristotle,  31. 

Port-Royal  schools,  89-91. 

Practice  teaching,  164-171. 


Preparation  of  teachers,  164-171. 
Professional  education,   144-146,  164-171, 

173.  176,  177,  180,  187. 
Protagoras,  33. 

Prussia,  school  system  of,  172-174. 
Public  elementary  education,  147-155. 
"  Public  Schools  "  of  England,  77, 157, 162, 

178. 

Psychological  education,  128-139. 
Pyrrho,  33. 
Pythagoras,  21. 

Quadrivium,  49. 
Quintilian,  40. 

Rabanus  Maurus,  53. 
Rabelais,  Francois,  97. 
Ratich,  Wolfgang,  106. 
Ratke,  Wolfgang,  106. 
Realistic  education,  94-105. 

Verbal,  96. 

Sense,  105 

Social,  loo. 

Realschule,  158,  160,  161,  173. 
Reformation,  education  during  the  period 
of,  76-93- 

Educators  of  the  period  of,  78-83. 
Regents  of  the  University  of  the  State  of 

New  York,  182,  186. 
Renaissance,  education  of  the,  65. 

In  Italy,  67. 

In  Northern  Europe,  68. 
Republic  of  Plato,  27. 
Reuchlin,  John,  69,  72. 
Rhetorical  schools,  34. 
Ritleracademie,  158. 
Rollin,  Charles,  91,  119. 
Roman  education,  35-43. 
Rousseau,  Jean  Jacques,  121-125. 

Salerno,  University  of,  63. 

Saracen  learning,  60. 

Saxony  school  plan,  81. 

Scholarship  expected  of  teachers,  171. 

Scholastic  education,  56. 

Schoolmen,  58. 

School  systems,  171-180. 

Schools,  Agricultural,  145. 

"  Board,"  177. 

Burgher,  59. 

Catechetical,  46. 

Catechumenal,  46. 


194 


Index 


Schools,  Cathedral,  47. 

Christian  Brothers',  92. 

Classical  secondary,  49,  74,  77,  82,  in, 
117,  157-163. 

Commercial,  145. 

Continuation,  173. 

Dialectic,  34. 

Elementary,  2,  5,  8,  9,  10, 17,  28,  37,  49, 
55,  59,  77,  79,  81,  89-93,  m,  138, 147- 
155,  173,  175,  177,  179,  181-189. 

Episcopal,  47. 

For  defectives,  144. 

"  Grammar,"  77,  162,  178,  179,  186. 

Guild,  59. 

High,  162,  163,  178,  179,  187. 

Higher,  2,  8,  10,  12,  16,  17,  20,  28,  32,  34, 
37,  42,  49,  55,61-64,80,  84,  86,  in, 
164-171,  174,  177,  178,  180,  187. 

Infant,  in,  138,  175,  177. 

Industrial,  144. 

Jesuit,  83. 

Manual  training,  144. 

Maternal,  in,  175. 

Monastic,  49. 

Normal,  85,  93,  117,  164-171,  174,  177, 

178,  180,  185-188. 
Of  Oratorians,  89. 
Of  Saxony,  81. 
Palatine,  si- 
Philosophical,  34. 
Port-Royal,  89. 

Primary  (see  Elementary  Schools). 
Professional,  144-146,  164-171,  173,  176, 

177,  180,  187. 
Public,  147-155. 
"  Public,"  77,  157,  162,  178. 
Real,  158,  160,  161,  173. 
Rhetorical,  34. 
Secondary,  17,  37,  41,  49,  74,  77,  81, 83- 

89,  in,  117,  157-163,  173,  176,  177, 

179,  187. 

Technical,  144-146,  164-171,  173,  176, 
177,  180,  187. 

"Voluntary,"  177. 
Science  in  education,  139-141. 
Scotland,  education  in,  77,  149,  168. 
Scotus  Erigena,  Joannes,  53,  58. 
Secondary  education  (see  Secondary  Schools) . 
Seneca,  40. 

Seville,  Isidore  de,  50. 
Sociological    theory    of    education,    142- 
146. 


Socrates,  22-24. 

Solon,  32. 

Sophists,  20. 

Sophocles,  32. 

Spartan  education,  15-17. 

Spencer,  Herbert,  140. 

Standard  of  preparation  for  teachers,  164- 
171. 

State  Commissioner  of  Education,  187. 

State  education,  79,  147-155,  150-163, 166- 
180. 

State  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction, 
184. 

State  support  of  schools  (see  Stale  Educa- 
tion). 

Sturm,  John,  69,  73. 

Superintendent  of  public  instruction,  184. 

Systems,  school,  171-180. 

Teachers,  certification  of,  170. 

Institutes,  169,  179,  184,  188. 

Professional  training  of,  164-171. 

Reading  circles,  170. 

Training  classes,  170,  184,  188. 

Training  colleges,  168,  178. 

Training  schools,  169,  179,  188. 
Tennessee,  development  of  education  in, 

155- 
Text-books,  of  Basedow,  126. 

Of  Comenius,  109. 

Of  Pestalozzi,  130. 
Thales,  32. 
Thomas  Aquinas,  58. 
Thucydides,  33. 
Training  classes,  170,  184,  188. 

Colleges,  168,  178. 

Of  teachers,  164-171. 

Schools,  169,  179,  188. 
Trivium,  49. 

Trotzendorf,  Valentine,  83. 
Twentieth  century,  educational  theories  of, 
142-146. 

United  States,  education  in,  149,  i53-i55» 
159,  162-163,  165,  166,  160-171,  170- 
189. 
Universal  education,  n,  46,  77,  79, 15i-i55» 

173,  175,  177,  179,  182-186. 
Universities,  rise  of  the,  62. 
At  Alexandria,  35. 
Athens,  34. 


Index 


195 


Universities,  Bologna,  64. 
Oxford,  54. 
Paris,  64. 
Salerno,  63. 
In  England,  178. 
France,  176. 
Germany,  174. 
United  States,  170. 

Verbal  realism,  94,  96. 

Virginia,    development    of   education   in, 

iSS. 

Vittorino  da  Feltre,  wo  k  of,  68,  71. 
Vocational  education,  146. 
"Voluntary  "  schools,  177. 


Ward,  sociological  theory  of  education  of, 
143- 

Wessel,  John,  69,  71. 

William  of  Occam,  58. 

William  of  Champeaux,  58,  69,  72. 

Wimfeling,  Jacob,  72. 

Women,  education  of,  10,  16,  29,  36,  45,  49, 
55,  79.  "2,  117, 118, 125,  146, 151-155, 
160-163,  167-171,  174-180,  185-188. 

Xenophon,  25. 

Zeller,  166. 

Zeno,  33. 

Zwingli,  Ulrich,  82. 


'"FVHE  following  pages  contain  advertisements  of  a 
•*•    few  of  the  Macmillan  publications  on  Education 


Bv  WILLIAM  HAWLEY  SMITH 

All  the  Children  of  All  the  People 

A  Study  of  the  Attempt  to  Educate  Everybody 

Cloth  izmo  306  pages  Index  J/.JO  net;  by  mail,  $1.61 

The  task  of  trying  to  educate  everybody  which  our  public 
schools  are  attempting  to  perform,  has  proved  far  more  diffi- 
cult than  the  originators  of  the  system  deemed  it  would  be 
when  they  set  out  upon  the  undertaking.  The  author  gives 
this  problem  careful  study  and  consideration  and  his  book 
will  prove  an  invaluable  help  toward  its  successful  solution. 

BY  FRANK  LOUIS  SOLDAN 

Late  Superintendent  of  Schools,  St.  Louis,  Mo. 

The  Century  and  the  School 

AND  OTHER  EDUCATIONAL  ESSAYS 

Cloth         iznto         $1*25  net;  by  mail,  $1.33 

The  essays  brought  together  in  this  volume  were  selected 
by  a  group  of  the  late  Superintendent  Soldan's  intimate  asso- 
ciates. The  titles  are :  The  Century  and  the  School ;  Mo- 
rality and  Education ;  What  is  a  Fad  ? ;  Teachers'  Duties ; 
Educational  Ideas  in  Dickens'  Novels;  A  Visit  to  German 
Schools ;  Reading  in  the  Higher  Grades ;  Folklore  and 
Fairy  Tales. 

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A  Cyclopedia  of  Education 

EDITED  BY  PAUL    MONROE,    PH.D. 

Professor  of  the  History  of  Education,  Teachers  College,  Columbia  University; 
Author  of  "A  Text-Book  in  the  History  of  Education,"  "  Brief  Course 
in  the  History  of  Education,"  etc. 

To  be  completed  in  five  large  octavo  volumes. 
Sold  only  by  subscription,  each  volume,  $5.00  net. 


What  Noted  Educators  say  of  the  Cyclopedia  of  Education 

Elmer  E.  Brown,  U.  S.  Commissioner  of  Education : 

"The  appearance  of  the  first  volume  undoubtedly  marks  an  epoch  in  the 
development  of  our  educational  literature.  Its  great  value  and  usefulness 
are  immediately  apparent.  I  can  see  at  once  that  it  will  save  me  a  vast 
amount  of  labor  by  its  concise  and  competent  treatment  of  a  large  number 
of  topics  with  which  I  have  to  do  almost  daily  in  one  way  and  another. 
A  number  of  the  articles  to  which  I  have  already  referred  are  admirable  in 
their  clearness,  comprehensiveness,  and  balance.  The  tables,  diagrams, 
illustrations,  and  particularly  the  well-selected  bibliographical  references, 
will  be  found  extremely  useful. 

"Both  the  editor  and  the  publishers  are  to  be  congratulated  on  the  ap- 
pearance of  a  publication  so  attractive,  so  valuable,  and  so  well  suited  to 
supply  an  urgent  need." 

Ellwood  P.  Cubberley,  Professor  of  Education,  Leiand  Stanford  Uni- 
versity : 

"I  have  just  finished  a  careful  examination  of  Volume  I  of  your  new  Cy- 
clopedia of  Education.  I  have  been  much  interested  in  its  production,  and 
expected  much,  but  it  exceeds  my  expectation.  You  have  done  a  fine 
piece  of  work  in  organizing  our  present  knowledge  in  the  field  and  the 
work  will  be  of  the  greatest  service  to  all.  Sets  of  it  ought  to  be  in  every 
school  library,  city  and  country,  and  in  every  public  library,  even  though 
small.  Accept  my  congratulations  on  the  issue  of  the  first  volume." 

J.  H.  Collins,  Superintendent  City  Schools,  Springfield,  Illinois : 

"  I  have  received  the  first  volume  of  the  Cyclopedia  of  Education  edited 
by  Paul  Monroe,  and  am  highly  pleased  with  it.  To  one  who  is  interested  in 
problems  of  education  it  is  a  work  of  great  value  and  interest.  I  have 
already  studied  many  of  the  leading  articles  of  Volume  I,  and  await  with 
interest  the  arrival  of  Volume  II." 

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Further  Comments  on  The  Cyclopedia  of  Education 


The  Outlook 


"  In  the  present  immense  and  varied  literature  of  education  —  a  subject 
now  looming  larger  than  ever  in  the  public  mind  —  not  teachers  only,  but 
the  many  who  are  either  officially  charged  with,  or  attracted  toward,  an 
intelligent  participation  in  the  treatment  of  educational  problems,  are  here 
furnished  with  the  succinct  and  comprehensive  information  they  require. 
This  includes  every  aspect  of  education.  Here  is  found,  not  only  the 
information  required  in  a  handy  reference  book  of  cyclopedic  range,  but 
also  an  assemblage  of  systematic  treatises  on  every  phase  of  the  subject." 

New   York  Post 

"There  has  been  hitherto  no  encyclopedia  of  education  in  English. 
The  present  publication,  therefore,  meets  a  real  need  and  will  be  heartily 
welcomed,  especially  since  its  merit  entitles  it  to  approval  as  a  worthy 
companion  of  the  German  and  French  educational  encyclopedias.  The 
editors  have  shown  discrimination  in  the  selection  of  contributors,  and  have 
succeeded  well  in  securing  harmony  and  proportion." 

The  New  York  Sun 

"  The  undertaking  is  of  exceptional  interest,  and  the  work  promises  to  be 
of  great  value.  It  addresses  itself  in  fact  not  only  to  all  teachers,  from 
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The  scheme  is  comprehensive,  dealing  both  with  history  and  present  con- 
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education,  etc.  Our  warmest  thanks  are  due  for  this  '  open  sesame,'  this 
godsend  to  all  educators." 

San  Francisco   Chronicle 

"  The  object  of  the  work  is  a  concise  discussion  of  all  topics  of  interest 
to  the  teacher,  giving  such  information  concerning  every  division  of  edu- 
cational practices  as  is  essential  to  a  book  of  reference.  From  the  sub- 
jects chosen  at  random  as  samples  of  the  manner  in  which  the  articles 
have  been  written  it  is  gratifying  to  note  that  in  aiming  at  conciseness 
there  has  been  no  sacrifice  of  clearness  or  precision." 

Journal  of  Education 

"  This  is  a  masterly  work,  one  long  needed,  and  one  that  will  be  keenly 
appreciated." 


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A  Brief  Course  in  the  Teaching  Process 

BY  GEORGE  DRAYTON  STRAYER 

Professor  of  Educational  Administration,  Teachers  College,  Columbia  University 
Cloth  i2mo  xiv-\-3i5  pages  $1-25  net 

This  new  book  by  Professor  Strayer  meets  the  great  and  very 
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Professor  Strayer  has  had  in  mind  not  so  much  the  specialist 
as  (i)  the  young  teacher,  who  needs  to  get  much  help  in  a  short 
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has  not  time  to  wade  through  morasses  of  display  stock  of  peda- 
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For  example :  The  Chapter  on  "  Study  "  offers  more  in  a  few 
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The  ever  troublesome  questions  of  inductive  and  deductive 
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befogged  will  be  surprised  at  their  simplicity  as  given  here. 

The  Learning  Process 

BY  STEPHEN  SHELDON  COLVIN,  PH.D. 

Professor  of  Psychology  at  the  University  of  Illinois 
Cloth  izmo  xxv +336  pages  $1.25 

In  the  multitude  of  books  on  psychology  here  is  at  last  one 
that  meets  the  teacher's  needs  ;  truly  a  rara  avis  among  books. 

It  is  not  sensational,  and  it  does  not  make  large  claims  to 
originality,  but  it  is  scholarly.  It  gives  the  latest  contributions 
to  the  subject,  and  in  so  far  as  is  possible  in  a  book,  aids  the 
teacher  by  making  clear  the  processes  of  the  learning  mind,  and 
showing  how  to  take  advantage  of  them. 


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